Development and validation of an assessment index for quantifying cognitive task load in pilots under simulated flight conditions using heart rate variability and principal component analysis

References

• Alaimo, A., A. Esposito, P. Faraci, C. Orlando, and G. D. Valenti. 2022. “Human Heart-Related Indexes Behavior Study for Aircraft Pilots Allowable Workload Level Assessment.” IEEE Access 10: 16088–16100. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3145043.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alaimo, A., A. Esposito, C. Orlando, and A. Simoncini. 2020. “Aircraft Pilots Workload Analysis: Heart Rate Variability Objective Measures and Nasa-Task Load Index Subjective Evaluation.” Aerospace 7 (9): 137. doi:10.3390/aerospace7090137.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoine, M., H. B. Abdessalem, and C. Frasson. 2022. “Cognitive Workload Assessment of Aircraft Pilots.” Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science 12 (10): 474–484. doi:10.4236/jbbs.2022.1210027.
   Google Scholar
• Babu, M. D., D. Jeevithashree, G. Prabhakar, K. P. S. Saluja, A. Pashilkar, and P. Biswas. 2019. “Estimating Pilots’ Cognitive Load from Ocular Parameters Through Simulation and in-Flight Studies.” The Journal of Eye Movement Research 12 (3): 10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beda, A., D. M. Simpson, and L. Faes. 2017. “Estimation of Confidence Limits for Descriptive Indexes Derived from Autoregressive Analysis of Time Series: Methods and Application to Heart Rate Variability.” PloS One 12 (10): e0183230. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borghini, G., L. Astolfi, G. Vecchiato, D. Mattia, and F. Babiloni. 2014. “Measuring Neurophysiological Signals in Aircraft Pilots and Car Drivers for the Assessment of Mental Workload, Fatigue and Drowsiness.” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 44: 58–75. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.10.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Causse, M., Z. K. Chua, and F. Rémy. 2019. “Influences of Age, Mental Workload, and Flight Experience on Cognitive Performance and Prefrontal Activity in Private Pilots: A FNIRS Study.” Scientific Reports 9 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-44082-w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Causse, M., V. Peysakhovich, and E. F. Fabre. 2016. “High Working Memory Load Impairs Language Processing During a Simulated Piloting Task: An ERP and Pupillometry Study.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 10: 240. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehais, F., J. Behrend, V. Peysakhovich, M. Causse, and C. D. Wickens. 2017. “Pilot Flying and Pilot Monitoring’s Aircraft State Awareness During Go-around Execution in Aviation: A Behavioral and Eye Tracking Study.” The International Journal of Aerospace Psychology 27 (1–2): 15–28. doi:10.1080/10508414.2017.1366269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehais, F., M. Causse, F. Vachon, N. Régis, E. Menant, and S. Tremblay. 2014. “Failure to Detect Critical Auditory Alerts in the Cockpit: Evidence for Inattentional Deafness.” Human Factors 56 (4): 631–644. doi:10.1177/0018720813510735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehais, F., M. Causse, F. Vachon, and S. Tremblay. 2012. “Cognitive Conflict in Human–Automation Interactions: A Psychophysiological Study.” Applied Ergonomics 43 (3): 588–595. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2011.09.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehais, F., V. Peysakhovich, S. Scannella, J. Fongue, and T. Gateau. 2015. “Automation Surprise in Aviation: Real-Time Solutions.” In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2525–2534. Seoul, Republic of Korea: Association for Computing Machinery.
   Google Scholar
• Deluca, J. 2005. Fatigue, Cognition, and Mental Effort. Fatigue as a Window to the Brain, 37–57. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Diaz-Piedra, C., H. Rieiro, A. Cherino, L.J. Fuentes, A. Catena, and L.L. Di Stasi. 2019. “The Effects of Flight Complexity on Gaze Entropy: An Experimental Study with Fighter Pilots.” Applied Ergonomics 77: 92–99. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2019.01.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolcos, F., A.D. Iordan, and S. Dolcos. 2011. “Neural Correlates of Emotion–Cognition Interactions: A Review of Evidence from Brain Imaging Investigations.” Journal of Cognitive Psychology (Hove, England) 23 (6): 669–694. doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.594433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekstrom, P.J. 1962. Analysis of Pilot Work Loads in Flight Control Systems with Different Degrees of Automationed. Long Beach,CA: IRE International Congress on Human Factors Engineering in Electronics.
   Google Scholar
• Giancola, M., P. Verde, L. Cacciapuoti, G. Angelino, L. Piccardi, A. Bocchi, M. Palmiero, and R. Nori. 2021. “Do Advanced Spatial Strategies Depend on the Number of Flight Hours? The Case of Military Pilots.” Brain Sciences 11 (7): 851. doi:10.3390/brainsci11070851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser, R.M., B. Ezenna, and S. Popper. 1990. Physiologic Evaluation of the L1/M1 Anti-G Straining Maneuver. Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, T.E., K.F. Berman, K. Fleming, J. Ostrem, J.D. Van Horn, G. Esposito, V.S. Mattay, J.M. Gold, and D.R. Weinberger. 1998. “Uncoupling Cognitive Workload and Prefrontal Cortical Physiology: A Pet RCBF Study.” NeuroImage 7 (4 Pt 1): 296–303. doi:10.1006/nimg.1998.0338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guzik, P., and M. Malik. 2016. “Ecg by Mobile Technologies.” Journal of Electrocardiology 49 (6): 894–901. doi:10.1016/j.jelectrocard.2016.07.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, S.G, and J.R. Hauser. 1987. “Inflight Application of Three Pilot Workload Measurement Techniques.” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 58 (5): 402–410.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hernando, D., S. Roca, J. Sancho, Á. Alesanco, and R. Bailón. 2018. “Validation of the Apple Watch for Heart Rate Variability Measurements During Relax and Mental Stress in Healthy Subjects.” Sensors (Basel) 18 (8): 2619. doi:10.3390/s18082619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard, Z.L., N.J. Evans, R.J. Innes, S.D. Brown, and A. Eidels. 2020. “How is Multi-Tasking Different from Increased Difficulty?” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 27 (5): 937–951. doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01741-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huttunen, K., H. Keränen, E. Väyrynen, R. Pääkkönen, and T. Leino. 2011. “Effect of Cognitive Load on Speech Prosody in Aviation: Evidence from Military Simulator Flights.” Applied Ergonomics 42 (2): 348–357. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2010.08.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kantowitz, B.H., S.G. Hart, and M.R. Bortolussi. 1983. “Measuring Pilot Workload in a Moving-Base Simulator: I. Asynchronous Secondary Choice-Reaction Tasked.” In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society Annual Meeting, 319–322 . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. doi:10.1177/154193128302700413.
   Google Scholar
• Karamizadeh, S., S.M. Abdullah, A.A. Manaf, M. Zamani, and A. Hooman. 2013. “An Overview of Principal Component Analysis.” Journal of Signal and Information Processing 04 (03): 173–175. doi:10.4236/jsip.2013.43B031.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, H.G., E.J. Cheon, D.S. Bai, Y.H. Lee, and B.H. Koo. 2018. “Stress and Heart Rate Variability: A Meta-Analysis and Review of the Literature.” Psychiatry Investigation 15 (3): 235–245. doi:10.30773/pi.2017.08.17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, G., L. Wang, Q. Wang, G. Zhou, Y. Wang, and Q. Jiang. 2014. “A New Approach to Detect Congestive Heart Failure Using Short-Term Heart Rate Variability Measures.” PloS One 9 (4): e93399. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luque-Casado, A., J.C. Perales, D. Cárdenas, and D. Sanabria. 2016. “Heart Rate Variability and Cognitive Processing: The Autonomic Response to Task Demands.” Biological Psychology 113: 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.11.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohanavelu, K., S. Poonguzhali, D. Ravi, P.K. Singh, M. Mahajabin, K. Ramachandran, U.K. Singh, and S. Jayaraman. 2020. “Cognitive Workload Analysis of Fighter Aircraft Pilots in Flight Simulator Environment.” Defence Science Journal 70 (2): 131–139. doi:10.14429/dsj.70.14539.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natter, M., J. Ockerman, and L. Baumgart. 2010. “Review of Cognitive Metrics for c2.” ITEA Journal of Test & Evaluation 31 (2): 179.
   Google Scholar
• Osborne, J.W, and A.B. Costello. 2004. “Sample Size and Subject to Item Ratio in Principal Components Analysis.” Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation 9 (1): 11.
   Google Scholar
• Ottati, W.L., J.C. Hickox, and J. Richter. 1999. “Eye Scan Patterns of Experienced and Novice Pilots during Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Navigationed.” In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 66–70 . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. doi:10.1177/154193129904300114.
   Google Scholar
• Pan, T., H. Wang, H. Si, Y. Li, and L. Shang. 2021. “Identification of Pilots’ Fatigue Status Based on Electrocardiogram Signals.” Sensors 21 (9): 3003. doi:10.3390/s21093003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa, E., M. Gronkvist, R. Kolegard, N. Dahlstrom, I. Knez, R. Ljung, and J. Willander. 2021. “Fatigue, Emotion, and Cognitive Performance in Simulated Long-Duration, Single-Piloted Flight Missions.” Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance 92 (9): 710–719. doi:10.3357/AMHP.5798.2021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosa, E., E. Lyskov, M. Grönkvist, R. Kölegård, N. Dahlström, I. Knez, R. Ljung, and J. Willander. 2022. “Cognitive Performance, Fatigue, Emotional, and Physiological Strains in Simulated Long-Duration Flight Missions.” Military Psychology 34 (2): 224–236. doi:10.1080/08995605.2021.1989236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roscoe, A.H. 1992. “Assessing Pilot Workload. Why Measure Heart Rate, HRV and Respiration?” Biological Psychology 34 (2–3): 259–287. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(92)90018-p.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roza, V.C.C, and O.A. Postolache. 2019. “Multimodal Approach for Emotion Recognition Based on Simulated Flight Experiments.” Sensors (Basel) 19 (24): 5516.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubio, S., E. Díaz, J. Martín, and J.M. Puente. 2004. “Evaluation of Subjective Mental Workload: A Comparison of SWAT, NASA‐TLX, and Workload Profile Methods.” Applied Psychology 53 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2004.00161.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scannella, S., V. Peysakhovich, F. Ehrig, E. Lepron, and F. Dehais. 2018. “Assessment of Ocular and Physiological Metrics to Discriminate Flight Phases in Real Light Aircraft.” Human Factors 60 (7): 922–935. doi:10.1177/0018720818787135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schohan, B., H.E. Rawson, and S.M. Soliday. 1965. “Pilot and Observer Performance in Simulated Low Altitude High Speed Flight.” Human Factors 7 (3): 257–265. doi:10.1177/001872086500700308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serhani, M.A., H. T. El Kassabi, H. Ismail, and A. Nujum Navaz. 2020. “ECG Monitoring Systems: Review, Architecture, Processes, and Key Challenges.” Sensors (Basel) 20 (6): 1796. doi:10.3390/s20061796.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaffer, F., and J. Ginsberg. 2017. “An Overview of Heart Rate Variability Metrics and Norms.” Frontiers in Public Health 5: 258. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2017.00258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw, D.M, and J.W. Harrell. 2023. “Integrating Physiological Monitoring Systems in Military Aviation: A Brief Narrative Review of Its Importance, Opportunities, and Risks.” Ergonomics: 1–13. doi:10.1080/00140139.2023.2194592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Škvareková, I., P. Pecho, and J. Fedáš. 2021. “Measurement of Pilot’s Workload During NDB and ILS Approaches.” Transportation Research Procedia 59: 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2021.11.092.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, M., and A. Gevins. 2005. “Neurophysiologic Monitoring of Mental Workload and Fatigue During Operation of a Flight Simulator.” In Proceedings of SPIE Defense and Security Symposium, Biomonitoring for Physiological and Cognitive Performance during Military Operations, edited by J. A. Caldwell and N. J. Wesensten, 116–126. Orlando: SPIE. doi:10.1117/12.602181.
   Google Scholar
• Spyker, D., S. Stackhouse, A. Khalafalla, and R. Mclane. 1971. Development of Techniques for Measuring Pilot Workload. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Contractor’s Report NASA CR-2150.
   Google Scholar
• Stemberger, J., R. S. Allison, and T. Schnell. 2010. “Thermal Imaging as a Way to Classify Cognitive Workloaded.” In 2010 Canadian Conference on Computer and Robot Vision, 231–238. Ottawa, Ontario: IEEE. doi:10.1109/CRV.2010.37.
   Google Scholar
• Svensson, E., M. Angelborg-Thanderz, L. Sjoberg, and S. Olsson. 1997. “Information Complexity-Mental Workload and Performance in Combat Aircraft.” Ergonomics 40 (3): 362–380. doi:10.1080/001401397188206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarvainen, M.P., D.J. Cornforth, and H.F. Jelinek. 2014. “Principal Component Analysis of Heart Rate Variability Data in Assessing Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy.” In 36th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 6667–6670. Ottawa, Ontario: IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Tsai, Y.-F., E. Viirre, C. Strychacz, B. Chase, and T.-P. Jung. 2007. “Task Performance and Eye Activity: Predicting Behavior Relating to Cognitive Workload.” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 78 (5 Suppl): B176–B185.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Veltman, J., and A. Gaillard. 1996. “Physiological Indices of Workload in a Simulated Flight Task.” Biological Psychology 42 (3): 323–342. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(95)05165-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, R. 2022. “From a Laboratory to the Wearables: A Review on History and Evolution of Electrocardiogram.” Iberoamerican Journal of Medicine 4 (4): 248–255. doi:10.53986/ibjm.2022.0038.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, L., S. Gao, W. Tan, and J. Zhang. 2023. “Pilots’ Mental Workload Variation When Taking a Risk in a Flight Scenario: A Study Based on Flight Simulator Experiments.” International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics: JOSE 29 (1): 366–375. doi:10.1080/10803548.2022.2049101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickens, C.D. 2002. “Situation Awareness and Workload in Aviation.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 11 (4): 128–133. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00184.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, G.F. 2002. “An Analysis of Mental Workload in Pilots During Flight Using Multiple Psychophysiological Measures.” The International Journal of Aviation Psychology 12 (1): 3–18. doi:10.1207/S15327108IJAP1201_2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, W., Y. Si, D. Wang, and B. Guo. 2018. “Automatic Recognition of Arrhythmia Based on Principal Component Analysis Network and Linear Support Vector Machine.” Computers in Biology and Medicine 101: 22–32. doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2018.08.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, L.R. 1967. “Some Effects of Motion Cues on Manual Tracking.” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 4 (10): 1300–1303. doi:10.2514/3.29075.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, G., Y. Si, D. Wang, W. Yang, and Y. Sun. 2019. “Automated Detection of Myocardial Infarction Using a Gramian Angular Field and Principal Component Analysis Network.” IEEE Access. 7: 171570–171583. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2955555.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Z., and A. Castelló. 2017. “Principal Components Analysis in Clinical Studies.” Annals of Translational Medicine 5 (17): 351. doi:10.21037/atm.2017.07.12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar