Being a believer: social identity in post-truth political discourse

References

• Anderson, Elizabeth. 2021. “Epistemic Bubbles and Authoritarian Politics.” In Political Epistemology, edited by Elizabeth Edenberg, and Michael Hannon, 11–30. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192893338.003.0002.
   Google Scholar
• Ásta. 2018. Categories We Live By: The Construction of Sex, Gender, Race, and Other Social Categories. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190256791.001.0001.
   Google Scholar
• Begby, Endre. 2022. “From Belief Polarization to Echo Chambers: A Rationalizing Account.” Episteme. https://doi.org/10.1017/epi.2022.14.
   Google Scholar
• Berinsky, Adam J. 2018. “Telling the Truth About Believing the Lies? Evidence for the Limited Prevalence of Expressive Survey Responding.” The Journal of Politics 80 (1): 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1086/694258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackburn, Simon. 2018. ‘A Philosopher Explains America’s “Post-Truth” Problem’ Interview by Sean Illing. Vox, 14 August 2018. https://www.vox.com/2018/8/14/17661430/trump-post-truth-politics-philosophy-simon-blackburn.
   Google Scholar
• Bullock, John, Alan Gerber, Seth Hill, and Gregory Huber. 2013. Partisan Bias in Factual Beliefs About Politics. Working Paper 19080. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w19080.
   Google Scholar
• Cassam, Quassim. 2021. “Bullshit, Post-Truth, and Propaganda.” In Political Epistemology, edited by Elizabeth Edenberg, and Michael Hannon, 49–63. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1997. 2nd ed. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_INDEX.HTM.
   Google Scholar
• Chisholm, Roderick M., and Thomas D. Feehan. 1977. “The Intent to Deceive.” The Journal of Philosophy 74 (3): 143–159. https://doi.org/10.2307/2025605.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway, Kellyanne. 2017. Interview by Brian Stelter. CNN, 23 July 2017. Transcript. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1707/23/rs.01.html.
   Google Scholar
• Cowen, Tyler. 2017. ‘Why Trump’s Staff Is Lying’. Bloomberg, 23 January 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2017-01-23/why-trump-s-staff-is-lying.
   Google Scholar
• Dembroff, Robin, and Catharine Saint-Croix. 2019. “'Yep, I'm Gay': Understanding Agential Identity.” Ergo 6 (20). https://doi.org/10.3998/ergo.12405314.0006.020.
   Google Scholar
• Dentith, M. R. X. 2019. “Conspiracy Theories on the Basis of the Evidence.” Synthese 196 (6): 2243–2261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-017-1532-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, Brian. 2015. The Ant Trap: Rebuilding the Foundations of the Social Sciences. Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199381104.001.0001.
   Google Scholar
• Festinger, Leon. 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Finlayson, Lorna. 2019. “What to Do with Post-Truth.” Nordic Wittgenstein Review 8: 63–79. https://doi.org/10.15845/nwr.v8i0.3502.
   Google Scholar
• Flynn, D.j., Brendan Nyhan, and Jason Reifler. 2017. “The Nature and Origins of Misperceptions: Understanding False and Unsupported Beliefs About Politics.” Political Psychology 38 (S1): 127–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12394.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frankfurt, Harry. 1988. “On Bullshit.” In The Importance of What We Care About, 117–133. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frankfurt, Harry. 2016. ‘Donald Trump Is BS, Says Expert in BS’. Time, 12 May. https://time.com/4321036/donald-trump-bs/.
   Google Scholar
• Gal, David. 2015. “Identity-Signaling Behavior.” In The Cambridge Handbook of Consumer Psychology, edited by Cait Lamberton, Derek D. Rucker, and Michael I. Norton, 257–281. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Green, Mitchell S. 2007. Self-Expression. Oxford: Clarendon Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199283781.001.0001.
   Google Scholar
• Heinzelmann, Nora, and Viet Tran. 2022. “Extremists Are More Confident.” Erkenntnis, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-022-00616-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendricks, Vincent F., and Mads Vestergaard. 2018. Postfaktisch: Die neue Wirklichkeit in Zeiten von Bullshit, Fake News und Verschwörungstheorien. München: Blessing.
   Google Scholar
• Hürter, Tobias. 2017. “Bullshit. Weder Wahrheit noch Lüge.” Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 67 (13): 23–27.
   Google Scholar
• Isenberg, Arnold. 1964. “Deontology and the Ethics of Lying.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 24 (4): 463–480. https://doi.org/10.2307/2104756.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, Glenn. 2021. ‘Trump Made 30,573 False or Misleading Claims as President.’ Washington Post, 24 January 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/how-fact-checker-tracked-trump-claims/2021/01/23/ad04b69a-5c1d-11eb-a976-bad6431e03e2_story.html.
   Google Scholar
• Korsgaard, Christine M. 1996. “The Sources of Normativity.” Tanner Lectures on Human Values, edited by Onora O’Neill. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511554476.
   Google Scholar
• Krishna, Daya. 1961. “‘Lying’ and the Compleat Robot.” The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 12 (46): 146–149. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/XII.46.146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristiansen, Lars J., and Bernd Kaussler. 2018. “The Bullshit Doctrine: Fabrications, Lies, and Nonsense in the Age of Trump.” Informal Logic 38 (1): 13–52. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v38i1.5067.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda, Ziva. 1990. “The Case for Motivated Reasoning.” Psychological Bulletin 108 (3): 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kupfer, Joseph. 1982. “The Moral Presumption Against Lying.” Review of Metaphysics 36 (1): 103–126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, Neil. 2023. “It’s Our Epistemic Environment, Not Our Attitude Toward Truth, That Matters.” Critical Review 35 (1-2): 94–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2022.2149108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahon, James Edwin. 2008. “Two Definitions of Lying.” International Journal of Applied Philosophy 22 (2): 211–230. https://doi.org/10.5840/ijap200822216.
   Google Scholar
• Mahon, James Edwin. 2016. “The Definition of Lying and Deception.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. Winter 2016. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/lying-definition/.
   Google Scholar
• Mannison, D. S. 1969. “Lying and Lies.” Australasian Journal of Philosophy 47 (2): 132–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00048406912341141.
   Google Scholar
• Marschall, Stefan. 2017. “Lügen und Politik im “Postfaktischen Zeitalter”.” Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 67 (13): 17–22.
   Google Scholar
• McGrath. April. 2017. “Dealing with Dissonance: A Review of Cognitive Dissonance Reduction.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 11 (12): e12362. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, Cas. 2004. “The Populist Zeitgeist.” Government and Opposition 39 (4): 541–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulo, Norbert. 2018. “Die Rationalität postfaktischen Denkens.” Behemoth. A Journal on Civilisation 2 (11): 55–73. https://doi.org/10.6094/behemoth.2018.11.2.988.
   Google Scholar
• Priester, Karin. 2012. “Wesensmerkmale des Populismus.” Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 5–6: 3–9.
   Google Scholar
• Primoratz, Igor. 1984. “Lying and the “Methods of Ethics”.” International Studies in Philosophy 16 (3): 35–57. https://doi.org/10.5840/intstudphil198416353.
   Google Scholar
• Prior, Markus, Gaurav Sood, and Kabir Khanna. 2015. “You Cannot Be Serious: The Impact of Accuracy Incentives on Partisan Bias in Reports of Economic Perceptions.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 10 (4): 489–518. https://doi.org/10.1561/100.00014127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quine, Willard van Orman. 1951. “Two Dogmas of Empiricism.” The Philosophical Review 60 (1): 20–43. https://doi.org/10.2307/2181906.
   Google Scholar
• Quinn, Aaron. 2017. “Fake News, False Beliefs, and the Need for Truth in Journalism.” International Journal of Applied Philosophy 31 (1): 21–29. https://doi.org/10.5840/ijap201771884.
   Google Scholar
• Rietdijk, Natascha. 2021. “Post-Truth Politics and Collective Gaslighting.” Episteme. https://doi.org/10.1017/epi.2021.24.
   Google Scholar
• Rini, Regina. 2021. “Weaponized Skepticism: An Analysis of Social Media Deception as Applied Political Epistemology.” In Political Epistemology, edited by Elizabeth Edenberg, and Michael Hannon, 31–48. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192893338.003.0003.
   Google Scholar
• Roig, Francisco Javier Ansuátegui. 2019. “Post-Truth and Lie. Variations on Hannah Arendt.” Governare La Paura. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 19–34. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1974-4935/9412.
   Google Scholar
• Sabàto, Antonio Jr. 2016. Antonio Sabato Jr. Says He’s ‘Absolutely’ Sure Obama’s a Muslim After RNC Speech Interview by Amna Nawaz and LZ Granderson. ABC News, 18 July 2016. http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/antonio-sabato-jr-absolutely-obamas-muslim-rnc-speech/story?id=40687052.
   Google Scholar
• Schaffner, Brian F, and Samantha Luks. 2018. “Misinformation or Expressive Responding? What an Inauguration Crowd Can Tell Us About the Source of Political Misinformation in Surveys.” Public Opinion Quarterly 82 (1): 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfx042.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt, Carl. [1932] 1963. Der Begriff des Politischen. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot.
   Google Scholar
• Searle, John R. 1975. “A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts.” In Language, Mind and Knowledge, edited by Keith Gunderson, 344–369. Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science 7. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swire, Briony, Adam J. Berinsky, Stephan Lewandowsky, and Ullrich K. H. Ecker. 2017. “Processing Political Misinformation: Comprehending the Trump Phenomenon.” Royal Society Open Science 4 (3): 160802. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szanto, Thomas. 2023. “Epistemically Exploitative Bullshit: A Sartrean Account.” European Journal of Philosophy 31 (3): 711–730. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejop.12810.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, Henri, and John C. Turner. 1986. “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior.” In Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by Stephen Worchel, and William G. Austin, 7–24. Chicago: Nelson.
   Google Scholar
• United States v. Trump. 2023. Indictment. U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida, 9:23-cr-80101-AMC.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, Bernard. 2002. Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yglesias, Matthew. 2017. ‘The Bullshitter-in-Chief’. Vox, 30 May 2017. https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/5/30/15631710/trump-bullshit.
   Google Scholar
• Zahavi, Amotz, and Avishag Zahavi. 1997. The Handicap Principle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar