CONSEQUENCES OF WEIGHT DECREASE ON FLIGHT PERFORMANCE DURING MIGRATION

REFERENCES

• Bairlein , F. and Simons , D. 1995 . Nutritional adaptations in migrating birds . Isr. J. Zool , 41 : 357 – 367 .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , M. 1985 . “ Sauerstoffverbrauch von Kolibris (Colibri coruscans und C. thalassinus) beim Horizontalflug. ” . Edited by: Nachtigall , W. 307 – 314 . Stuttgart : Gustav Fisher-Verlag . Biona Report 3
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein , M. H. , Thomas , S. P. and Schmidt-Nielsen , K. 1973 . Power input during flight of the fish crow, Corvus ossifragus . J. Exp. Biol , 58 : 401 – 410 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butler , P. J. , West , N. H. and Jones , D. R. 1977 . Respiratory and cardiovascular responses of the pigeon to sustained, level flight in a wind tunnel . J. Exp. Biol , 71 : 7 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudmundsson , G. A. , Lindström , Å. and Alerstam , T. 1991 . Optimal fat loads and long-distance flights by migrating Knots Calidris canutus, Sanderlings C. alba and Turnstones . Arenaria interpres , 133 : 140 – 152 . Ibis
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenewalt , C. H. 1975 . The flight of birds . Trans. Am. Philos. Soc , 65 : 1 – 66 .
   Google Scholar
• Hedenström , A. 1992 . Flight performance in relation to fuel load in birds . J. Theor. Biol , 158 : 535 – 537 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hudson , D. M. and Bernstein , M. H. 1983 . Gas exchange and energy cost of flight in the white necked raven, Corvus cryptoleucus . J. Exp. Biol , 103 : 121 – 130 .
   Google Scholar
• Hughes , P. M. and Rayner , J. M.V. 1991 . Addition of artificial loads to long-eared bats Plecotus auritus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae): handicapping flight performance . J. Exp. Biol , 161 : 285 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes , P. M. and Rayner , J. M.V. 1993 . The flight of pipistrelle bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus during pregnancy and lactation . J. Zool. (London) , 230 : 541 – 555 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasiewski , R. C. 1963 . Oxygen consumption of torpid, resting, active and flying hummingbirds . Physiol. Zool , 36 : 122 – 140 .
   Google Scholar
• LeFebvre , E. A. 1964 . The use of D2 O18 for measuring energy metabolism in Columbia livia at rest and in flight . Auk , 81 : 403 – 416 .
   Google Scholar
• Masman , D. and Klaassen , M. 1987 . Energy expenditure during free flight in trained and free-living Eurasian Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) . Auk , 104 : 603 – 616 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennycuick , C. J. 1975 . “ Mechanics of flight. ” . In Avian biology. Vol Edited by: Farner , D. S. and King , J. R. Vol. 5 , 1 – 75 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pennycuick , C. J. 1989 . Bird flight performance: a practical calculation manual Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Piersma , T. and van De Sant , S. 1992 . Pattern and predictability of potential wind assistance for waders and geese migrating from West Africa and the Wadden sea to Siberia . Ornis Svecica , 2 : 55 – 66 .
   Google Scholar
• Piersma , T , Drent , R. and Wiersma , P. 1991 . Temperate versus tropical wintering in the world's northernmost breeder, the knot: metabolic scope and resource levels restrict subspecific options. Acta XX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici, Christchurch, NZ 761 – 772 .
   Google Scholar
• Piersma , T. , Verkuil , Y. and Tulp , I. 1994 . “ Resources for long-distance migration: successive exploitation of intertidal benthos in the Wadden Sea by two subspecies of Knot ” . In Calidris canutus. Oikos, submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Rayner , J. M.V. 1979 . A new approach to animal flight mechanics . J. Exp. Biol , 80 : 17 – 54 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayner , J. M.V. 1995 . Flight mechanics and constraints on flight performance . Isr. J. Zool , 41 : 321 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Rayner , J. M.V. , Jones , G. and Hughes , P. M. 1990 . “ Load carrying in flying bats. ” . In European Bat Research 1987 (Proc. 4th European Bat Res. Symp., Praha, 1987). Charles University Press, Praha Edited by: Hanak , V. , Horacek , I. and Gaisler , J.
   Google Scholar
• Rothe , H. J. , Biesel , W. and Nachtigall , W. 1987 . Pigeon flight in a windtunnel . II. Gas exchange and power requirements. J. Comp. Physiol. B , 157 : 99 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt-Nielsen , K. 1977 . “ Problems of scaling: Locomotion and physiological correlates. ” . In Scale effects in animal locomotion Edited by: Pedley , T. J. 1 – 21 . London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Torre-Bueno , J. R. and Larochelle , J. 1978 . The metabolic costs of flight in unrestrained birds . J. Exp. Biol , 75 : 223 – 229 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker , V. A. 1968 . Respiratory exchange and evaporative water loss in the flying budgerigar . J. Exp. Biol , 48 : 67 – 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker , V. A. 1972 . Metabolism during flight in the laughing gull, Larus atricilla . Am. J. Physiol , 222 : 237 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker , V. A. 1974 . “ Energetics of natural avian flight. ” . In Avian energetics. Nuttal Ornithological Club, Cambridge, MA Edited by: Paynter , R. A. 298 – 334 .
   Google Scholar
• Videler , J. J. 1992 . Comparing the costs of flight: Aircraft designers can still learn from nature. Biona Report 8. Gustav Fischer-Verlag, Stuttgart 53 – 71 .
   Google Scholar
• Videler , J. J. , Vossebelt , G. , Gnodde , M. and Groenewegen , A. 1988a . Indoor flight experiments with trained kestrels . I. Flight strategies in still air with and without added weight. J. Exp. Biol , 134 : 173 – 183 .
   Google Scholar
• Videler , J. J. , Groenewegen , M. , Gnodde , M. and Vossebelt , G. 1988b . Indoor flight experiments with trained kestrels . II. The effect of added weight on flapping flight kinematics. J. Exp. Biol , 134 : 185 – 199 .
   Google Scholar
• Westerterp , K. R. and Drent , R. H. 1985 . “ Energetic costs and energy saving mechanisms in parental care of free-living passerine birds by the D2 18O method. In: Acta XVII Int. Ornit. Congr. Moscow ” . Edited by: Ilyichev , V. D. and Gavrilov , V. M. 392 – 398 . Moscow : Nauka .
   Google Scholar
• Welham , C. V.J. 1994 . Flight speeds of migrating birds: a test of maximum range speed predictions from three aerodynamic equations . Behav. Ecol , 5 : 1 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Wilkie , D. R. 1977 . “ Metabolism and body size. ” . In Scale effects in animal locomotion Edited by: Pedley , T. J. 23 – 36 . London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar