Conservation in a changing landscape: habitat occupancy of the critically endangered Tennent’s leaf-nosed lizard (Ceratophora tennentii) in Sri Lanka

References

• Ambagahaduwa IM, Prasad N, Gunatilleke IAUN, Seneviratne G, Gunatilleke CVS. 2009. Estimation of above ground biomass of a Pinus caribaea Morelet stand in lower Hantana. J Natl Sci Found Sri Lanka. 37:195–201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asela MDC, Ukuwela KDB, Bandra IN, Kandambi HKD, Surasinghe TD, Karunarathna DMSS. 2012. Natural history and current distribution patterns of Calotes liolepis Boulenger, 1885 (Reptilia: agamidae: Draconinae) in Sri Lanka. Herpetotropicos. 8:39–47.
   Google Scholar
• Ashton P, Gamage S, Gunatilleke I, Gunatilleke C. 1997. Restoration of a Sri Lankan rainforest: using Caribbean pine Pinus caribaea as a nurse for establishing late-successional tree species. J Appl Ecol. 34:915–925.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attum O, Eason P, Cobbs G, El Din SMB. 2006. Response of a desert lizard community to habitat degradation: do ideas about habitat specialists/generalists hold? Biol Conserv. 133:52–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badenoch N. 2008. Improving Forest Governance in Knuckles: dialogue and development for better outcomes. Bangkok: IUCN.
   Google Scholar
• Bahir MM, Surasinghe TD. 2005. A conservation assessment of the Sri Lankan Agamidae (Reptilia: Sauria). Raffles B Zool. 12:407–412.
   Google Scholar
• Baker J, French K, Whelan RJ. 2002. The edge effect and ecotonal species: bird communities across a natural edge in southeastern Australia. Ecology. 83:3048–3059.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balasubramaniam S. 1988. The major forest formations of the Knuckles region. Paper presented on the preliminary workshop for the preparation of a conservation plan for the Knuckles range of forests. Colombo: Forest Department.
   Google Scholar
• Bambaradeniya CNB, Ekanayake SP. 2003. A guide to the biodiversity of Knuckles forest region. Colombo: IUCN.
   Google Scholar
• Bambaradeniya CNB, Fonseka KT, Ambagahawatte CL. 1998. A preliminary study of fauna and flora of a rice field in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Cey J Sci (Bio Sci). 25:1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Bates D, Maechler M, Bolker BM, Walker S. 2014. lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using Eigen and S4 [Internet]. R package version 1.1–7. [cited 2014 Dec 27]. Available from: http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lme4
   Google Scholar
• Bierregaard Jr RO. 2001. Lessons from Amazonia: the ecology and conservation of a fragmented forest. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Böhm M, Collen B, Baillie JEM, Bowles P, Chanson J, Cox N, Hammerson G, Hoffmann M, Livingstone SR, Ram M, et al. 2013. The conservation status of the world’s reptiles. Biol Conserv. 157:372–385.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bossuyt F, Meegaskumbura M, Beenaerts N, Gower DJ, Pethiyagoda R, Roelants K, Mannaert A, Wilkinson M, Bahir MM, Manamendra-Arachchi K, et al. 2004. Local endemism within the western Ghats-Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. Science. 306:479–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braithwaite RW. 1987. Effects of fire regimes on lizards in the wet-dry tropics of Australia. J Trop Ecol. 3:265–275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook BW, Sodhi NS, Ng PKL. 2003. Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature. 424:420–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks TM, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GAB, Rylands AB, Konstant WR, Flick P, Pilgrim J, Oldfield S, Magin G, et al. 2002. Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of biodiversity. Conserv Biol. 16:909–923.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chokkalingam U, Vanniarachchy SA. 2011. Sri Lanka’s REDD potential: myth or reality? Colombo: Forest Carbon Asia.
   Google Scholar
• Cooray PG. 1961. Geology of the country around Rangala. Ceylon Geol Surv Dept Mere. 2:138.
   Google Scholar
• de Silva A. 2001. The herpetofauna of Sri Lanka: historical apects and current status. Battaramulla: Ministry of Environment.
   Google Scholar
• de Silva A, Goonewardene S, Bauer A, Drake J. 2005. Ceratophora tennentii Gunther & Grey, in Tennent, 1861 (Reptilia: Agamidae): some notes on its ecology. Lyriocephalus. 6:55–62.
   Google Scholar
• Dela JDS. 2009. Fourth country report from Sri Lanka to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. Colombo: Government of Sri Lanka.
   Google Scholar
• Dhakal B, Pinard MA, Gunatilleke IAUN, Gunatilleke CVS, Weerasinghe HMSPM, Dharmaparakrama ALS, Burslem DFRP. 2012. Impacts of cardamom cultivation on montane forest ecosystems in Sri Lanka. Forest Ecol Manag. 274:151–160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dharmaparakrama S. 2006. Carbon sequestration in major land use types in the Knuckles forest and surrounding region, Sri Lanka [PhD thesis]. Vienna: University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences.
   Google Scholar
• Eedelen WR. 2012. Conservation of biodiversity in a hotspot: Sri Lanka’s amphibians and reptiles. Amphib Reptile Conserv. 5:33–51.
   Google Scholar
• Forestry Department. 2010. Global forest resources assessment 2010: country report. Battaramulla: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Franco AMA, Hill JK, Kitschke C, Collingham YC, Roy DB, Fox R, Huntley B, Thomas CD. 2006. Impacts of climate warming and habitat loss on extinctions at species’ low-latitude range boundaries. Global Change Biol. 12:1545–1553.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazer GW, Canham CD, Lertzman KP. 1999. Gap light analyzer (GLA) Version 2.0. Imaging software to extract canopy structure and gap light transmission indices from true-color fisheye photographs. New York: Users manual and program documentation: Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, and Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook.
   Google Scholar
• Frazer GW, Fournier RA, Trofymow J, Hall RJ. 2001. A comparison of digital and film fisheye photography for analysis of forest canopy structure and gap light transmission. Agricult Forest Meterol. 109:249–263.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamage SN, Weerakoon DK, Gunawardena A. 2011. Current status of vertebrate diversity in anthropogenic and natural ecosystems in south-western Sri Lanka. J Natl Sci Found Sri Lanka. 39:383–389.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germaine SS, Wakeling BF. 2001. Lizard species distributions and habitat occupation along an urban gradient in Tucson, Arizona, USA. Biol Conserv. 97:229–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goonewardene S, Drake J, De Silva A. 2006. The herpetofauna of the Knuckles range: project Knuckles 2004 and 2005. Gampola: University of Edinburge, Amphibia and Reptile Research Organisation of Sri Lanka (ARROS).
   Google Scholar
• Greer AE. 1989. The biology and evolution of Australian lizards. Baulkham Hills: Surrey Beatty & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Gunaratne AMTA, Gunatilleke CVS, Gunatilleke IAUN. 2010. Barriers to tree seedling emergence on human-induced grasslands in Sri Lanka. J Appl Ecol. 47:157–165.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunatilake HM, Senaratne D, Abeygunawardena P. 1993. Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of peripheral communities of Knuckles national wilderness area of Sri-Lanka - a farming systems-approach. Econ Bot. 47:275–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunatilleke N, Pethiyagoda R, Gunatilleke S. 2008. Biodiversity of Sri Lanka. J Natl Sci Found Sri Lanka. 36:25–62.
   Google Scholar
• Hitinayake HMGSB. 1998. Agroecosystems as habitats for amphibians and reptiles in Sri Lanka. In: de Silva A, editor. Proceedings of the international conference on the biology and conservation of the amphibians and reptiles of South Asia. Gampola: Amphibian and Reptile Research Organisation of Sri Lanka.
   Google Scholar
• Hodar JA, Pleguzuelos JM, Poveda JC. 2000. Habitat selection of the common chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) (L.) in an area under development in southern Spain: implications for conservation. Biol Conserv. 94:63–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IUCN. 1994. Management plan for the conservation of the Knuckles forest. Phase II. Ceratophora tennentii <http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/4178/0>. Gland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
   Google Scholar
• IUCN. 1996. Ceratophora tennentii <http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/4178/0>: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Gland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Jayasuriya AHM. 2008. Biodiversity profile and conservation action plan - Central Province. Battaramulla: Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Kariyawasam D. 1991. Resource use and settlement in the forests of the Knuckles Range. The Sri Lanka Forester. 10:3–13.
   Google Scholar
• Karunarathna DMSS, Amarasinghe AAT. 2013. Behavioral ecology and microhabitat use by Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus, 1758): a monotypic genus in Sri Lanka (Reptilia: Agamidae: Draconinae) with notes on the taxonomy. Russ J Herpetol. 20:1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karunaratne WAIP, Edirisinghe JP. 2008. Diversity of bees at different altitudes in the Knuckles forest reserve. Cey J Sci (Bio Sci). 37:61–72.
   Google Scholar
• Kawecki TJ. 2008. Adaptation to marginal habitats. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst. 39:321–342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kudavidanage EP, Wanger TC, de Alwis C, Sanjeewa S, Kotagama SW. 2012. Amphibian and butterfly diversity across a tropical land-use gradient in Sri Lanka: implications for conservation decision making. Anim Conserv. 15:253–265.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurance WF, Lovejoy TE, Vasconcelos HL, Bruna EM, Didham RK, Stouffer PC, Gascon C, Bierregaard RO, Laurance SG, Sampaio E. 2002. Ecosystem decay of Amazonian forest fragments: a 22-year investigation. Conserv Biol. 16:605–618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindström S, Mattsson E, Nissanka SP. 2012. Forest cover change in Sri Lanka: the role of small scale farmers. Appl Geogr. 34:680–692.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louzada J, Gardner T, Peres C, Barlow J. 2010. A multi-taxa assessment of nestedness patterns across a multiple-use Amazonian forest landscape. Biol Conserv. 143:1102–1109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macip-Rios R, Munoz-Alonso A. 2008. Lizard diversity in coffee crops and primary forest in the Soconusco Chiapaneco. Rev Mex Biodivers. 79:185–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maduma Bandara CM. 1991. Climate and hydrology of the Dumbara Hills. Annual Review 1990. Kandy: Institute of Fundamental Studies; p. 51.
   Google Scholar
• Manamendra-Arachchi K, Liyanage S. 1994. Conservation and distribution of the agamid lizards of Sri Lanka with illustrations of the extant species. J South Asian Nat Hist. 1:77–96.
   Google Scholar
• Mazerolle MJ, Bailey LL, Kendall WL, Royle JA, Converse SJ, Nichols D. 2007. Making great leaps forward: accounting for detectability in herpetological field studies. J Herpetol. 41:672–689.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medawatte WWMAB, Ekanayake EMB, Tennakoon KU, Gunatilleke CVS, Gunatilleke IAUN. 2011. A floristic survey of a unique lowland rain forest in Moraella in the Knuckles valley, Sri Lanka. Cey J Sci (Bio Sci). 40:33–51.
   Google Scholar
• Meegaskumbura M, Bossuyt F, Pethiyagoda R, Manamendra-Arachchi K, Bahir M, Milinkovitch MC, Schneider CJ. 2002. Sri Lanka: an amphibian hot spot. Science. 298:398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer E. 1998. Forests, chena cultivation, plantations and the colonial state in Ceylon 1840–1940. In: Sangwan RHG, Grove D, Vinita S, editors. Nature and the orient: the environmental history of south and southeast Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; p. 793–827.
   Google Scholar
• Miththapala S. 2006. The ecology of the wild cats of Sri Lanka: status of taxonomy, research and conservation. In: Bambaradeniya CNB, editor. The fauna of Sri Lanka. Colombo: World Conservation Union & Government of Sri Lanka; p. 235–256.
   Google Scholar
• MoE. 2012. The national red list 2012 of Sri Lanka; conservation status of the fauna and flora. Battaramulla: Ministry of Environment.
   Google Scholar
• Moller AP. 2009. Successful city dwellers: a comparative study of the ecological characteristics of urban birds in the Western Palearctic. Oecologia. 159:849–858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noon BR, Ishwar NM, Vasudevan K. 2006. Efficiency of adaptive cluster and random sampling in detecting terrestrial herpetofauna in a tropical rainfores. Wildl Soc Bull. 34:59–68.
   Google Scholar
• Palihawardana A. 1996. An ecological study of the Cophotis ceylanica. In: de Silva A, editor. Proceedings of the biology and conservation of the amphibians, reptiles and their habitats in South Asia. Gampola: Amphibian and Reptile Research Organisation of Sri Lanka.
   Google Scholar
• Peres CA, Gardner TA, Barlow J, Zuanon J, Michalski F, Lees AC, Vieira ICG, Moreira FMS, Feeley KJ. 2010. Biodiversity conservation in human-modified Amazonian forest landscapes. Biol Conserv. 143:2314–2327.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pethiyagoda R. 2012. Biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka’s novel ecosystems. Cey J Sci (Bio Sci). 41:1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Pethiyagoda R. 2013. Want to avert extinctions in Sri Lanka? Empower the citizenry! In: Sodhi NS, Gibson L, Raven PH, editors. Conservation biology: voices from the tropics. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Pethiyagoda R, Manamendra-Arachchi K. 1998. A revision of the endemic Sri Lankan agamid lizard genus Ceratophora Gray, 1835, with description of two new species. J South Asian Nat Hist. 3:1–50.
   Google Scholar
• Pethiyagoda Jr. RS, Manamendra-Arachchi K. 2012. Endangered anurans in a novel forest in the highlands of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Res. 39:641–648.
   Google Scholar
• Pethiyagoda RS, Nanayakkara S. 2011. Invasion by Austroeupatorium inulifolium (Asteraceae) arrests succession following tea cultivation in the highlands of Sri Lanka. Cey J Sci (Bio Sci). 40:175–181.
   Google Scholar
• Pimm SL, Askins RA. 1995. Forest losses predict bird extinctions in eastern North America. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 92:9343–9347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinheiro J, Bates D, DebRoy S, Sarkar D, R Core Team. 2015. nlme: Linear and nonlinear mixed effects models [Internet]. R package version 3.1-119. [cited 2015 Jan 15]. Available from: http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nlme
   Google Scholar
• Pyron RA, Kandambi HKD, Hendry CR, Pushpamal V, Burbrink FT, Somaweera R. 2013. Genus-level phylogeny of snakes reveals the origins of species richness in Sri Lanka. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 66:969–978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R core_team. 2013. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Austria, Vienna: R core team.
   Google Scholar
• Rajapaksha DRNS, Samarawickrama VAMPK, Ranawana KB. 2006. Herpetofaunal diversity in Dothalugala man and Biosphere Reserve, of the Knuckles Forest Range, Sri Lanka. Russ J Herpetol. 13:120–134.
   Google Scholar
• Ranawana KB, Priyadarshana TGM. 2012. The taxonomy and conservation status of the land snails in Sri Lanka. In: Weerakoon DK, Wijesundara S, editors. The national red list 2012 of Sri Lanka: conservation status of the fauna and flora. Battaramulla: Ministry of Environment; p. 65–76.
   Google Scholar
• Rodrigo RK, Jayantha D. 2004. An observation of the foraging behavior of Ceratophora tennentii Günther, 1861 Knuckles forest range in Sri Lanka. Reptile Rap. 6:11.
   Google Scholar
• Russell KR, Lear DHV, Guynn DC. 1999. Prescribed fire effects on herpetofauna: review and management implications. Wildl Soc Bull. 27:374–384.
   Google Scholar
• Samarawickrama VAMPK, Ranawana KB, Rajapaksha DRNS, Ananjeva NB, Orlov NL, Ranasinghe JMAS, Samarawickrama VAP. 2006. A new species of the genus Cophotis (Squamata: Agamidae) from Sri Lanka. Russ J Herpetol. 13:207–214.
   Google Scholar
• Samarawickrama VAMPK, Samarawickrama DRNS, Kumburegama S. 2012. Herpetofauna in the Kaluganga upper catchment of the Knuckles Forest Reserve, Sri Lanka. Amphib Reptile Conserv. 5:81–89.
   Google Scholar
• Sartorius SS, Vitt LJ, Colli GR. 1999. Use of naturally and anthropogenically disturbed habitats in Amazonian rainforest by the teiid lizard Ameiva ameiva. Biol Conserv. 90:91–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAS Institute Inc. 2013. JMP® 11. Cary (NC): SAS Institute Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Scherr SJ, McNeely JA. 2008. Biodiversity conservation and agricultural sustainability: towards a new paradigm of ‘ecoagriculture’ landscapes. Phil Trans R Soc B. 363:477–494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senanayake FR. 1980. The status of the endemic lizards, genus: Ceratophora, in Sri Lanka. Tiger Paper. 7:26–28.
   Google Scholar
• Shibayama T, Ashton MS, Singhakumara B, Griscom HP, Ediriweera S, Griscom BW. 2006. Effects of fire on the recruitment of rain forest vegetation beneath Pinus caribaea plantations, Sri Lanka. Forest Ecol Manag. 226:357–363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smart R, Whiting MJ, Twine W. 2005. Lizards and landscapes: integrating field surveys and interviews to assess the impact of human disturbance on lizard assemblages and selected reptiles in a savanna in South Africa. Biol Conserv. 122:23–31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somaweera R, Somaweera N. 2009. Lizards of Sri Lanka: a colour guide with field keys. Chimaira: Buchhandelsgesellschaft mbH.
   Google Scholar
• Somaweera R, Webb JK, Shine R. 2011. Determinants of habitat selection by hatchling Australian freshwater crocodiles. Plos One. 6:e28533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somaweera R, Wijayathilaka N, Bowatte G. 2012. Does the invasive shrub Ulex europaeus benefit an endemic Sri Lankan lizard? Herpetol Conserv Biol. 7:219–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surasinghe T, Wijesinghe MR. 2005. The influence of habitat disturbance on agamid lizards: evidence from a study along a disturbance gradient in Sinharaja. Lyriocephalus. 6:291–302.
   Google Scholar
• UNESCO. 2014. Central highlands of Sri Lanka [Internet]. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Centre; [cited 2014 Mar 3]. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1203/
   Google Scholar
• Ujvari B, Shine R, Madsen T. 2011. Detecting the impact of invasive species on native fauna: Cane toads (Bufo marinus), frillneck lizards (Chlamydosaurus kingii) and the importance of spatial replication. Austral Ecol. 36:126–130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Poorten G. 2012. The taxonomy and conservation status of the butterflies of Sri Lanka. In: Weerakoon DK, Wijesundara S, editors. The national red list 2012 of Sri Lanka: conservation status of the fauna and flora. Battaramulla: Ministry of Environment; p. 26–41.
   Google Scholar
• Venugopal PD. 2010. Population density estimates of agamid lizards in human-modified habitats of the Western Ghats, India. Herpetol J. 20:69–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb GJW, Manolis SC, Buckworth R. 1982. Crocodylus johnstoni in the McKinlay river area, N.T. I. variation in the diet, and a new method of assessing the relative importance of prey. Aust J Zool. 30:877–899.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weerawardhena SR, Russell AP. 2012. Cover-dependency of anurans in the Riverstone, Knuckles mountain forest range, Sri Lanka. Taprobanica. 4:12–19.
   Google Scholar
• Werner W. 2001. Sri Lanka’s magnificant cloud forests. Colombo: WHT Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Whiting MJ, Chetty K, Twine W, Carazo P. 2009. Impact of human disturbance and beliefs on the tree agama Acanthocercus atricollis atricollis in a South African communal settlement. Oryx. 43:586–590.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wickremasinghe PJ, Kularatne RS. 1998. Prospects of cultivating cardamom under Pinus in mid country wet zone of Sri Lanka. Multipurpose tree species in Sri Lanka: multipurpose trees for environment conservation. In: Gunasena HPM, National Research Network on Multipurpose Trees, editors. Proceedings of the Eighth National Workshop on Multipurpose Trees; 1997 Oct 23–25; Kandy.
   Google Scholar
• Wijesooriya W, Gunatilleke C. 2003. Buffer zone of the Sinharaja biosphere reserve in Sri Lanka and its management strategies. J Natl Sci Found Sri Lanka. 31:57–71.
   Google Scholar
• Wijesundara S. 2012. Present status of montane forests in Sri Lanka. In: Weerakoon DK, Wijesundara S, editors. The national red list 2012 of Sri Lanka: conservation status of the fauna and flora. Battaramulla: Ministry of Environment; p. 181–185.
   Google Scholar
• Wikramanayake ED, Gunatilleke S. 2002. Sri Lanka’s montane rain forests. In: Wikramanayake E, Dinerstein E, Loucks CJ, editors. Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment. Washington (DC): Island Press; p. 290–293.
   Google Scholar