Might the Rorschach Be a Projective Test After All? Social Projection of an Undesired Trait Alters Rorschach Oral Dependency Scores

REFERENCES

• Abramowitz , J. S. , Tolin , D. F. and Street , G. P. 2001 . Paradoxical effects of thought suppression: A meta-analysis of controlled studies . Clinical Psychology Review , 21 : 683 – 703 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aronow , E. , Reznikoff , M. and Moreland , K. L. 1995 . The Rorschach: Projective technique or psychometric test? . Journal of Personality Assessment , 64 : 213 – 228 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. 1994 . “ The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficacy, and control in social cognition ” . In Handbook of social cognition , Edited by: Wyer , R. S. and Srull , T. K. Vol. 1 , 1 – 40 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Beck , S. J. 1937 . Introduction to the Rorschach method: A manual of personality study , New York : American Orthopsychiatric Association . (American Orthopsychiatric Association Monograph No. 1.)
   Google Scholar
• Blatt , S. J. , Brenneis , B. , Schimek , J. and Glick , M. 1976 . Normal development and psychopathological development of the concept of the object on the Rorschach . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 85 : 364 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. 1994 . Construct validity of the Interpersonal Dependency Inventory: 1977–1992 . Journal of Personality Disorders , 8 : 65 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. 1996 . Construct validity of the Rorschach Oral Dependency Scale: 1967–1995 . Psychological Assessment , 8 : 200 – 205 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. 1997 . Long term retest reliability of Interpersonal Dependency Inventory scores in college students . Assessment , 4 : 359 – 364 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. 1999 . Criterion validity of objective and projective dependency tests: A meta-analytic assessment of behavioral prediction . Psychological Assessment , 11 : 48 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. 2002 . A process dissociation approach to objective-projective test score interrelationships . Journal of Personality Assessment , 78 : 47 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. 2005 . The dependent patient: A practitioner's guide , Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. , Bonner , S. , Kildow , A. M. and McCall , C. M. 1997 . Effects of individual versus group test administration on Rorschach Oral Dependency scores . Journal of Personality Assessment , 69 : 215 – 228 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. , Hilsenroth , M. J. , Padawer , J. R. and Fowler , J. C. 2000 . Interpersonal dependency and personality pathology: Variations in Rorschach Oral Dependency scores across Axis II diagnoses . Journal of Personality Assessment , 75 : 478 – 491 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. and O'Neill , R. M. 1997 . Construct validity of the Rorschach Oral Dependency Scale: Relationship of ROD scores to WAIS–R scores in a psychiatric inpatient sample . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 53 : 99 – 105 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bornstein , R. F. , Rossner , S. C. and Hill , E. L. 1994 . Retest reliability of scores on objective and projective measures of dependency: Relationship to life events and inter-test interval . Journal of Personality Assessment , 62 : 398 – 415 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadbury , S. 1991 . The concept of dependence as developed by Birtchnell: A critique . British Journal of Medical Psychology , 64 : 237 – 251 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, , 2nd ed. , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Cooper , S. , Perry , J. and Arnow , D. 1988 . An empirical approach to the study of defense mechanisms: I. Reliability and preliminary validity of the Rorschach Defense Scale . Journal of Personality Assessment , 52 : 187 – 203 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig , J. A. , Koestner , R. and Zuroff , D. C. 1994 . Implicit and self-attributed intimacy motivation . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 11 : 491 – 507 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer , P. 2000 . Defense mechanisms in psychology today: Mechanisms for adaptation . American Psychologist , 55 : 637 – 646 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Exner , J. E. 1989 . Searching for projection in the Rorschach . Journal of Personality Assessment , 53 : 520 – 536 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Exner , J. E. 1991 . The Rorschach: A comprehensive system, Vol. 2, , 2nd ed. , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Frank , L. K. 1939 . Projective methods for the study of personality . Journal of Psychology , 8 : 389 – 413 .
   Google Scholar
• Freud , S. 1955 . “ Totem and taboo ” . In The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud , Edited by: Strachey , J. Vol. 3 , 1 – 161 . London : Hogarth . (Original work published 1913)
   Google Scholar
• Freud , S. 1962 . “ Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defense ” . In The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud , Edited by: Strachey , J. Vol. 3 , 159 – 188 . London : Hogarth . (Original work published 1896)
   Google Scholar
• Furnham , A. and Petrides , K. V. 2003 . Trait emotional intelligence and happiness . Social Behavior and Personality , 31 : 815 – 824 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganellen , R. J. 1996 . Integrating the Rorschach and the MMPI–2 in personality assessment , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , D. T. 1991 . How mental systems believe . American Psychologist , 46 : 107 – 119 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gough , H. and Weiss , D. S. 1979 . A construct validation of the Interpersonal Dependency Inventory with normal subjects Unpublished manuscript
   Google Scholar
• Handler , L. and Clemence , A. J. 2005 . “ The Rorschach Prognostic Rating Scale ” . In Scoring the Rorschach: Seven validated systems , Edited by: Bornstein , R. F. and Masling , J. M. 25 – 54 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Heilbrun , A. B. , Blum , N. and Goldreyer , N. 1985 . Defensive projection: An investigation of its role in paranoid conditions . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 173 : 17 – 25 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Higgins , E. T. and King , G. A. 1981 . “ Accessibility of social constructs: Information-processing consequences of individual and contextual variability ” . In Personality, cognition, and social interaction , Edited by: Cantor , N. and Kihlstrom , J. F. 69 – 122 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Hirschfeld , R. M. A. , Klerman , G. L. , Clayton , P. J. and Keller , M. B. 1983 . Personality and depression: Empirical findings . Archives of General Psychiatry , 40 : 993 – 998 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschfeld , R. M. A. , Klerman , G. L. , Gough , H. G. , Barrett , J. , Korchin , S. J. and Chodoff , P. 1977 . A measure of interpersonal dependency . Journal of Personality Assessment , 41 : 610 – 618 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunsley , J. and Bailey , J. M. 1999 . The clinical utility of the Rorschach: Unfulfilled promises and an uncertain future . Psychological Assessment , 11 : 266 – 277 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawada , C. L. K. , Oettingen , G. , Gollwitzer , P. M. and Bargh , J. A. 2004 . The projection of implicit and explicit goals . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 86 : 545 – 559 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klopfer , B. 1937 . The present status of the theoretical developments of the Rorschach method . Rorschach Research Exchange , 1 : 142 – 147 .
   Google Scholar
• Klopfer , B. , Ainsworth , M. , Klopfer , W. and Holt , R. 1954 . Development in the Rorschach technique (Vol. 1) , New York : World Book .
   Google Scholar
• Leichtman , M. 1996 . The Rorschach: A developmental perspective , Hillsdale, NJ : The Analytic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , P. M. 1998 . Psychoanalytic perspectives on the Rorschach , Hillsdale, NJ : The Analytic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , P. M. 2005 . “ Defense and its assessment: The Lerner Defense Scale ” . In Scoring the Rorschach: Seven validated systems , Edited by: Bornstein , R. F. and Masling , J. M. 237 – 269 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Levy , K. N. , Meehan , K. B. , Auerbach , J. S. and Blatt , S. J. 2005 . “ Concept of the object on the Rorschach Scale ” . In Scoring the Rorschach: Seven validated systems , Edited by: Bornstein , R. F. and Masling , J. M. 97 – 133 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Loas , G. , Corcos , M. , Perez-Diaz , F. , Verrier , A. , Guelfi , J. D. and Halfon , O. 2002 . Criterion validity of the Interpersonal Dependency Inventory: A preliminary study of 621 addictive subjects . European Psychiatry , 17 : 477 – 478 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maner , J. K. , Kendrick , D. T. , Becker , D. V. , Robertson , T. E. , Hofer , B. Neuberg , S. L. 2005 . Functional projection: How fundamental social motives can bias interpersonal perception . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 88 : 63 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks , G. and Miller , N. 1987 . Ten years of research on the false consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review . Psychological Bulletin , 2 : 165 – 177 .
   Google Scholar
• Masling , J. M. 1960 . The influence of situational and interpersonal variables in projective testing . Psychological Bulletin , 57 : 65 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masling , J. M. 1986 . “ Orality, pathology, and interpersonal behavior ” . In Empirical studies of psychoanalytic theories , Edited by: Masling , J. M. Vol. 2 , 73 – 106 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Masling , J. M. 2002 . Speak, memory, or goodbye Columbus . Journal of Personality Assessment , 78 : 4 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masling , J. M. and Bornstein , R. F. 2005 . “ Scoring the Rorschach: Retrospect and prospect ” . In Scoring the Rorschach: Seven validated systems , Edited by: Bornstein , R. F. and Masling , J. M. 1 – 24 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Masling , J. M. , Rabie , L. and Blondheim , S. H. 1967 . Obesity, level of aspiration, and Rorschach and TAT measures of oral dependence . Journal of Consulting Psychology , 31 : 233 – 239 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McClelland , D. C. , Koestner , R. and Weinberger , J. 1989 . How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? . Psychological Review , 96 : 690 – 702 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , G. J. 1997 . On the integration of personality assessment methods: The Rorschach and MMPI . Journal of Personality Assessment , 68 : 297 – 330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , G. J. and Archer , R. P. 2001 . The hard science of Rorschach research: What do we know and where do we go? . Psychological Assessment , 13 : 486 – 502 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , G. J. , Finn , S. E. , Eyde , L. D. , Kay , G. G. , Moreland , K. L. Dies , R. R. 2001 . Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues . American Psychologist , 56 : 128 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer , G. J. and Handler , L. 1997 . The ability of the Rorschach to predict subsequent outcome: A meta-analysis of the Rorschach Prognostic Rating Scale . Journal of Personality Assessment , 69 : 1 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mongrain , M. , Vettese , L. C. , Shuster , B. and Kendal , N. 1998 . Perceptual biases, affect, and behavior in the relationships of dependents and self-critics . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 : 230 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , H. A. 1943 . Thematic Apperception Test , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Murray , H. A. 1951 . “ Forward ” . In An introduction to projective techniques , Edited by: Anderson , H. H. and Anderson , G. L. xi – xiv . Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Murstein , B. I. 1956 . The projection of hostility on the Rorschach as a result of ego-threat . Journal of Projective Techniques , 20 : 418 – 428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murstein , B. I. and Wolf , S. R. 1970 . Empirical test of the “levels” hypothesis with five projective techniques . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 75 : 38 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neki , J. S. 1976 . An examination of the cultural relevance of dependence as a dynamic of social and therapeutic relationships . British Journal of Medical Psychology , 49 : 1 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman , L. S. , Duff , K. J. and Baumeister , R. F. 1997 . A new look at defensive projection: Thought suppression, accessibility, and biased person perception . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 72 : 980 – 1001 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedenthal , P. M. 1990 . Implicit perception of affective information . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 26 : 505 – 527 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Overholser , J. C. 1996 . The dependent personality and interpersonal problems . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 184 : 8 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porcelli , P. and Meyer , G. J. 2002 . Construct validity of Rorschach variables for alexithymia . Psychosomatics , 43 : 360 – 369 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rorschach , H. 1942 . Psychodiagnostik , Bern, , Switzerland : Bircher . (Original work published 1921)
   Google Scholar
• Sato , T. 2000 . Autonomy and relatedness in psychopathology and treatment: A cross-cultural formulation . Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs , 127 : 89 – 127 .
   Google Scholar
• Schachtel , E. G. 1966 . Experiential foundations of Rorschach's test , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Schafer , R. 1948 . The clinical application of psychological tests , New York : International Universities Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schimel , J. , Greenberg , J. and Martens , A. 2003 . Evidence that projection of a feared trait can serve a defensive function . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 29 : 969 – 979 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shedler , J. , Mayman , M. and Manis , M. 1993 . The illusion of mental health . American Psychologist , 48 : 1117 – 1131 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srull , T. K. and Wyer , R. S. 1979 . The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 : 1660 – 1672 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stapel , D. A. and Koomen , W. 1999 . Correction processes in social judgments: The role of timing . European Journal of Social Psychology , 29 : 131 – 138 .
   Google Scholar
• Viglione , D. J. 1999 . A review of recent research addressing the utility of the Rorschach . Psychological Assessment , 11 : 251 – 265 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. and Erber , R. 1992 . The hyperaccessibility of suppressed thoughts . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 63 : 903 – 912 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner , I. B. 1999 . What the Rorschach can do for you: Incremental validity in clinical applications . Assessment , 6 : 327 – 339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner , I. B. 2003 . Principles of Rorschach interpretation, , 2nd ed. , Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Weiner , I. B. 2004 . “ Rorschach Inkblot Method ” . In Use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment , Edited by: Maruish , M. E. Vol. 3 , 553 – 587 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Westen , D. 1995 . Revision of Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale , Cambridge, MA : Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge Hospital . Unpublished manual
   Google Scholar
• White , R. W. 1944 . “ Interpretation of imaginative productions ” . In Personality and the behavior disorders , Edited by: Hunt , J. McV. 3 – 14 . New York : Ronald .
   Google Scholar
• Willock , B. 1992 . Projection, transitional phenomena, and the Rorschach . Journal of Personality Assessment , 59 : 99 – 116 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar