Quantifying the Strength of General Factors in Psychopathology: A Comparison of CFA with Maximum Likelihood Estimation, BSEM, and ESEM/EFA Bifactor Approaches

References

• Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 16, 397–438. doi:10.1080/10705510903008204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2012). Bayesian structural equation modeling: A more flexible representation of substantive theory. Psychological Methods, 17, 313–335. doi:10.1037/a0026802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkham, M., Mellor-Clark, J., Connell, J., & Cahill, J. (2006). A core approach to practice-based evidence: A brief history of the origins and applications of the CORE-OM and CORE System. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 6, 3–15. doi:10.1080/14733140600581218.
   Google Scholar
• Booth, T., & Hughes, D. J. (2014). Exploratory structural equation modeling of personality data. Assessment, 21, 260–271. doi:10.1177/1073191114528029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspi, A., Houts, R. M., Belsky, D. W., Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Harrington, H., Israel, S., … & Moffitt, T. E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders? Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 119–137. doi:10.1177/2167702613497473.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crawford, A. V., Green, S. B., Levy, R., Lo, W. J., Scott, L., Svetina, D., & Thompson, M. S. (2010). Evaluation of parallel analysis methods for determining the number of factors. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70, 885–901. doi:10.1177/0013164410379332.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Côté, S. M., Orri, M., Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Boivin, M., Japel, C., … & Tremblay, R. E. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Mental Health and Social Inadaptation Assessment for Adolescents (MIA) in a population‐based sample. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 26, e1566. doi:10.1002/mpr.1566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connell, J., Barkham, M., Stiles, W. B., Twigg, E., Singleton, N., Evans, O., & Miles, J. N. (2007). Distribution of CORE–OM scores in a general population, clinical cut-off points and comparison with the CIS–R. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 69–74. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.017657.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., Keyes, K. M., Skodol, A. E., Markon, K. E., Grant, B. F., & Hasin, D. S. (2011). Borderline personality disorder co-morbidity: Relationship to the internalizing–externalizing structure of common mental disorders. Psychological Medicine, 41, 1041–1050. doi:10.1017/S0033291710001662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton, N. R., Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Carragher, N., & Krueger, R. F. (2015). Transdiagnostic factors of psychopathology and substance use disorders: A review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 171–182. doi:10.1007/s00127-014-1001-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2007). Conducting a Criminological Survey in a Culturally Diverse Context Lessons from the Zurich Project on the Social Development of Children. European Journal of Criminology, 4, 271–298. doi:10.1177/1477370807077183.
   Google Scholar
• Garner, A. A., Peugh, J., Becker, S. P., Kingery, K. M., Tamm, L., Vaughn, A. J., … & Epstein, J. N. (2017). Does sluggish cognitive tempo fit within a bi-factor model of ADHD?. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21, 642–654. doi:10.1177/1087054714539995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gignac, G. E. (2014). Dynamic mutualism versus g factor theory: An empirical test. Intelligence, 42, 89–97. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartman, C. A., De Bildt, A., & Minderaa, R. B. (2013). CSBQ –children's social behavior questionnaire. In F. R. Volkmar (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders (pp. 825–829). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Helm, J. L., Castro-Schilo, L., & Oravecz, Z. (2017). Bayesian Versus Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Multitrait–Multimethod Confirmatory Factor Models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 24, 17–30. doi:10.1080/10705511.2016.1236261.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennrich, R. I., & Bentler, P. M. (2011). Exploratory bi-factor analysis. Psychometrika, 76, 537–549. doi:10.1007/s11336-011-9218-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J., & Neale, M. C. (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 929–937. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.9.929.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Lakoma, M. D., Petukhova, M., … & Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Psychological Medicine, 42, 1997–2010. doi:10.1017/S0033291712000025.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keyes, K. M., Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., Skodol, A. E., Wall, M. M., Grant, B., … & Hasin, D. S. (2013). Thought disorder in the meta-structure of psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1673–1683. doi:10.1017/S0033291712002292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H., & Eaton, N. R. (2015). The hierarchical structure of common mental disorders: Connecting multiple levels of comorbidity, bifactor models, and predictive validity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 1064–1078. doi:10.1037/abn0000113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer, M. D., Krueger, R. F., & Hicks, B. M. (2008). The role of internalizing and externalizing liability factors in accounting for gender differences in the prevalence of common psychopathological syndromes. Psychological Medicine, 38, 51–61. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krueger, R. F., & Markon, K. E. (2006). Reinterpreting comorbidity: A model-based approach to understanding and classifying psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 111–133. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laceulle, O. M., Vollebergh, W. A., & Ormel, J. (2015). The structure of psychopathology in adolescence: Replication of a general psychopathology factor in the TRAILS study. Clinical Psychological Science, 3, 850–860. doi:10.1177/2167702614560750.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., Keenan, K., Stepp, S. D., Loeber, R., & Hipwell, A. E. (2015). Criterion validity of the general factor of psychopathology in a prospective study of girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 415–422. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansolf, M., & Reise, S. P. (2016). Exploratory bifactor analysis: The Schmid-Leiman orthogonalization and Jennrich-Bentler analytic rotations. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51, 698–717. doi:10.1080/00273171.2016.1215898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maydeu-Olivares, A., & Coffman, D. L. (2006). Random intercept item factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 11, 344–362. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.11.4.344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenzie, K., Murray, K. R., Murray, A. L., & Richelieu, M. (2015). The effectiveness of university counselling for students with academic issues. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 15, 284–288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin, A. J., Arens, A. K., & Marsh, H. W. (2015). A bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling framework for the identification of distinct sources of construct-relevant psychometric multidimensionality. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23, 116–139. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.961800.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, A. L., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2016). The development of the general factor of psychopathology ‘p-factor’ through childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 1573–1586. doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0132-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, A. L., McKenzie, K., Murray, K. R., & Richelieu, M. (2014). Mokken scales for testing both pre-and postintervention: An analysis of the Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation—Outcome Measure (CORE–OM) before and after counseling. Psychological Assessment, 26, 1196. doi:10.1037/pas0000015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, A. L., McKenzie, K., & Richelieu. (2018). Treatment-related response shifts in the CORE-OM. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, A. L., McKenzie, K., Kuenssberg, R., & Booth, T. (2015). Do the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) and autism spectrum quotient short form (AQ-S) primarily reflect general ASD traits or specific ASD traits? A bi-factor analysis. Assessment, 24, 444–457. doi:10.1177/1073191115611230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, A. L., & Johnson, W. (2013). The limitations of model fit in comparing the bi-factor versus higher-order models of human cognitive ability structure. Intelligence, 41, 407–422. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.06.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus Version 7 user's guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Noordhof, A., Krueger, R. F., Ormel, J., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Hartman, C. A. (2015). Integrating autism-related symptoms into the dimensional internalizing and externalizing model of psychopathology. The TRAILS study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 577–587. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9923-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oleski, J., Cox, B. J., Clara, I., & Hills, A. (2011). Pathological gambling and the structure of common mental disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199, 956–960. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3182392931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patalay, P., Fonagy, P., Deighton, J., Belsky, J., Vostanis, P., & Wolpert, M. (2015). A general psychopathology factor in early adolescence. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 207, 15–122. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.149591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reise, S. P. (2012). The rediscovery of bifactor measurement models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47, 667–696. doi:10.1080/00273171.2012.715555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revelle, W. (1979). Hierarchical cluster analysis and the internal structure of tests. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 14, 57–74. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr1401_4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revelle, W., & Wilt, J. (2012). On when a factor is a general factor: Presented at the European Association for Personality Psychology experts meeting on the structure of personality. Dubrovnik, Croatia.
   Google Scholar
• Revelle, W., & Wilt, J. (2013). The general factor of personality: A general critique. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 493–504. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ribeaud, D., & Eisner, M. (2010). Risk factors for aggression in pre-adolescence: Risk domains, cumulative risk and gender differences-Results from a prospective longitudinal study in a multi-ethnic urban sample. European Journal of Criminology, 7, 460–498. doi:10.1177/1477370810378116.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Eaton, N. R., & Krueger, R. F. (2015). How transdiagnostic factors of personality and psychopathology can inform clinical assessment and intervention. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97, 425–435. doi:10.1080/00223891.2015.1055752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saris, W. E., Satorra, A., & Van der Veld, W. M. (2009). Testing structural equation models or detection of misspecifications?. Structural Equation Modeling, 16, 561–582. doi:10.1080/10705510903203433.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmid, J., & Leiman, J. M. (1957). The development of hierarchical factor solutions. Psychometrika, 22, 53–61. doi:10.1007/BF02289209.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spearman, C. (1904). “General Intelligence,” objectively determined and measured. The American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201–292. doi:10.2307/1412107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stochl, J., Khandaker, G. M., Lewis, G., Perez, J., Goodyer, I. M., Zammit, S., … & Jones, P. B. (2015). Mood, anxiety and psychotic phenomena measure a common psychopathological factor. Psychological Medicine, 45(7), 1483–1493. doi:10.1017/S003329171400261X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tackett, J. L., Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C., Waldman, I., Krueger, R. F., & Rathouz, P. J. (2013). Common genetic influences on negative emotionality and a general psychopathology factor in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 1142–1153. doi:10.1037/a0034151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremblay, R. E., Loeber, R., Gagnon, C., Charlebois, P., Larivee, S., & LeBlanc, M. (1991). Disruptive boys with stable and unstable high fighting behavior patterns during junior elementary school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19, 285–300. doi:10.1007/BF00911232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Der Maas, H. L., Dolan, C. V., Grasman, R. P., Wicherts, J. M., Huizenga, H. M., & Raijmakers, M. E. (2006). A dynamical model of general intelligence: The positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism. Psychological Review, 113, 842–861. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.113.4.842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Lier, P. A., Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Brendgen, M., Tremblay, R. E., & Boivin, M. (2012). Peer victimization, poor academic achievement, and the link between childhood externalizing and internalizing problems. Child Development, 83, 1775–1788. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01802.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhulst, F. C., van der Ende, J., & Koot, H. (1996). Handleiding voor de CBCL/4-18. [Manual for the CBCL/4-18]. Rotterdam: Afdeling Kinder- en jeugdpsychiatrie, Sophia Kinderziekenhuis/Academisch Ziekenhuis Rotterdam/Erasmus.
   Google Scholar
• Wertz, J., Zavos, H., Matthews, T., Harvey, K., Hunt, A., Pariante, C. M., & Arseneault, L. (2015). Why some children with externalising problems develop internalising symptoms: Testing two pathways in a genetically sensitive cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 738–746. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, A. G., Krueger, R. F., Hobbs, M. J., Markon, K. E., Eaton, N. R., & Slade, T. (2013). The structure of psychopathology: Toward an expanded quantitative empirical model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 281–294. doi:10.1037/a0030133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar