18,035
Views
200
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ANNUAL REVIEW OF SEX RESEARCH SPECIAL ISSUE

Media and Sexualization: State of Empirical Research, 1995–2015

References

  • American Psychological Association. (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report.aspx
  • Arima, A. N. (2003). Gender stereotypes in Japanese television advertisements. Sex Roles, 49(1–2), 81–90. doi:10.1023/A:1023965704387
  • *Aubrey, J. S. (2006a). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366–386. doi:10.1111/jcom.2006.56.issue-2
  • *Aubrey, J. S. (2006b). Exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions among college women: An examination of the selective exposure hypothesis and the role of moderating variables. Sex Roles, 55, 159–172. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9070-7
  • *Aubrey, J. S. (2007). The impact of sexually objectifying media exposure on negative body emotions and sexual self-perceptions: Investigating the mediating role of body self-consciousness. Mass Communication and Society, 10(1), 1–23. doi:10.1080/15205430709337002
  • *Aubrey, J. S. (2010). Looking good versus feeling good: An investigation of media frames of health advice and their effects on women’s body-related self-perceptions. Sex Roles, 63, 50–63. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9768-4
  • Aubrey, J. S., & Frisby, C. M. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: A content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society, 14(4), 475–501. doi:10.1080/15205436.2010.513468
  • *Aubrey, J. S., & Gerding, A. (2014). The cognitive tax of self-objectification: Examining sexually objectifying music videos and female emerging adults’ cognitive processing of subsequent advertising. Journal of Media Psychology, 21(1), 22–32.
  • *Aubrey, J. S., Henson, J., Hopper, K. M., & Smith, S. (2009). A picture is worth twenty words (about the self): Testing the priming of visual sexual objectification on women’s self-objectification. Communication Research Reports, 26(4), 271–284. doi:10.1080/08824090903293551
  • *Aubrey, J. S., Hopper, K. M., & Mbure, W. (2011). Check that body! The effects of sexually objectifying music videos on college men’s sexual beliefs. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 55(3), 360–379. doi:10.1080/08838151.2011.597469
  • *Aubrey, J. S., & Taylor, L. D. (2009). The role of lad magazines in priming men’s chronic and temporary appearance-related schemata: An investigation of longitudinal and experimental findings. Human Communication Research, 35, 28–58. doi:10.1111/hcre.2008.35.issue-1
  • Barlett, C., Vowels, C., & Saucier, D. (2008). Meta-analyses of the effects of media images on men’s body-image concerns. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(3), 279–310.
  • Bazzini, D., McIntosh, W., Smith, S., Cook, S., & Harris, C. (1997). The aging woman in popular film: Underrepresented, unattractive, unfriendly, and unintelligent. Sex Roles, 36, 531–543. doi:10.1007/BF02766689
  • Beasley, B., & Collins Standley, T. (2002). Shirts vs. skins: Clothing as an indicator of gender role stereotyping in video games. Mass Communication and Society, 5(3), 279–293. doi:10.1207/S15327825MCS0503_3
  • *Beck, V. S., Boys, S., Rose, C., & Beck, E. (2012). Violence against women in video games: A prequel or sequel to rape myth acceptance? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 3016–3031. doi:10.1177/0886260512441078
  • *Behm-Morawitz, E., & Mastro, D. (2009). The effects of the sexualization of female video game characters on gender stereotyping and female self-concept. Sex Roles, 61(11–12), 808–823. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9683-8
  • *Behm-Morawitz, E., & Schipper, S. (2015). Sexing the avatar: Gender, sexualization, and cyber-harassment in a virtual world. Journal of Media Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000152
  • *Bell, B., Lawton, R., & Dittmar, H. (2007). The impact of thin models in music videos on adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 4, 137–145. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.02.003
  • *Bernard, P., Gervais, S., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S., & Klein, O. (2012). Integrating sexual objectification with object versus person recognition: The sexualized-body-inversion hypothesis. Psychological Science, 23(5), 469–471. doi:10.1177/0956797611434748
  • *Bernard, P., Gervais, S., Allen, J., Delmee, A., & Klein, O. (2015). From sex objects to human beings: Masking sexual body parts and humanization as moderators to women’s objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 432–446. doi:10.1177/0361684315580125
  • *Bernard, P., Loughnan, S., Marchal, C., Godart, A., & Klein, O. (2015). The exonerating effect of sexual objectification: Sexual objectification decreases rapist blame in a stranger rape context. Sex Roles, 72, 499–508. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0482-0
  • *Bongiorno, R., Bain, P. G., & Haslam, N. (2013). When sex doesn’t sell: Using sexualized images of women reduces support for ethical campaigns. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e83311. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083311
  • *Burgess, M., & Burpo, S. (2012). The effects of music videos on college students’ perceptions of rape. College Student Journal, 46(4), 748–763.
  • Burgess, M., Stermer, S. P., & Burgess, S. R. (2007). Sex, lies, and video games: The portrayal of male and female characters on video game covers. Sex Roles, 57, 419–433. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9250-0
  • Busby, L. (1975). Sex-role research on the mass media. Journal of Communication, 25, 107–131. doi:10.1111/jcom.1975.25.issue-4
  • Calogero, R. (2011). Operationalizing self-objectification: Assessment and related methodological issues. In R. Calogero, S. Tantleff-Dunn, & J. K. Thompson (Eds.), Self-objectification in women: Causes, consequences, and counteractions (pp. 23–49). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Calogero, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2009a). Potential implications of the objectification of women’s bodies for women’s sexual satisfaction. Body Image, 6, 145–148. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.01.001
  • Calogero, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2009b). Sexual self-esteem in American and British college women: Relations with self-objectification and eating problems. Sex Roles, 60(3–4), 160–173. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9517-0
  • Cato, M., & Carpentier, F. R. D. (2010). Conceptualization of female empowerment and enjoyment of sexualized characters in reality television. Mass Communication and Society, 13, 270–288. doi:10.1080/15205430903225589
  • *Choma, B. L., Foster, M. D., & Radford, E. (2007). Use of objectification theory to examine the effects of a media literacy intervention on women. Sex Roles, 56(9–10), 581–590. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9200-x
  • *Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J., & Fiske, S. (2010). From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(3), 540–551. doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21497
  • *Civile, C., & Obhi, S. (2015). Power, objectification, and recognition of sexualized women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684315604820
  • Clarke, L., & Korotchenko, A. (2011). Aging and the body: A review. Canadian Journal on Aging, 30(3), 495–510. doi:10.1017/S0714980811000274
  • Claudat, K., & Warren, C. (2014). Self-objectification, body self-consciousness during sexual activities, and sexual satisfaction in college women. Body Image, 11(4), 509–515. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.006
  • Coyne, S. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Howard, E. (2013). Emerging in a digital world: A decade review of media use, effects, and gratifications in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 125–137. doi:10.1177/2167696813479782
  • *Dakanalis, A., Di Mattei, V. E., Bagliacca, E. P., Prunas, A., Sarno, L., Priva, G., & Zanetti, M. A. (2012). Disordered eating behaviors among Italian men: Objectifying media and sexual orientation differences. Eating Disorders, 20(5), 356–367. doi:10.1080/10640266.2012.715514
  • *Daniels, E. (2009). Sex objects, athletes, and sexy athletes: How media representations of women athletes can impact adolescent girls and college women. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24(4), 399–422. doi:10.1177/0743558409336748
  • *Daniels, E. (2012). Sexy versus strong: What girls and women think of female athletes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33, 79–90. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2011.12.002
  • *Daniels, E., & Wartena, H. (2011). Athlete or sex symbol: What boys think of media representations of female athletes. Sex Roles, 65(7–8), 566–579. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9959-7
  • Daniels, E., & Zurbriggen, E. (2016). The price of sexy: Viewers’ perceptions of a sexualized versus nonsexualized Facebook profile photograph. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(1), 2–14. doi:10.1037/ppm0000048
  • *Dens, N., De Pelsmacker, P., & Janssens, W. (2009). Effects of scarcely dressed models in advertising on body esteem for Belgian men and women. Sex Roles, 60, 366–378. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9541-0
  • De Vries, D. A., & Peter, J. (2013). Women on display: The effect of portraying the self online on women’s self-objectification. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 1483–1489. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.015
  • *Dill, K., Brown, B., & Collins, M. (2008). Effects of exposure to sex-stereotyped video game characters on tolerance of sexual harassment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1402–1408. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.06.002
  • Dill, K., & Thill, K. (2007). Video game characters and the socialization of gender roles: Young people’s perceptions mirror sexist media depictions. Sex Roles, 57, 851–864. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9278-1
  • Downs, E., & Smith, S. L. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles, 62(11), 721–733. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9637-1
  • *Driesmans, K., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). Playing a videogame with a sexualized female character increases adolescents’ rape myth acceptance and tolerance toward sexual harassment. Games for Health Journal, 4(2), 91–94. doi:10.1089/g4h.2014.0055
  • *Eggermont, S., Beullens, K., & Van Den Bulck, J. (2005). Television viewing and adolescent females’ body dissatisfaction: The mediating role of opposite sex expectations. Communications, 30, 343–357. doi:10.1515/comm.2005.30.3.343
  • *Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). The mediating role of appearance comparisons in the relationship between media usage and self-objectification in young women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 447–457. doi:10.1177/0361684315581841
  • *Farquhar, J. C., & Wasylkiw, L. (2007). Media images of men: Trends and consequences of body conceptualization. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 8(3), 145–160. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.3.145
  • Ferris, A. L., Smith, S. W., Greenberg, B. S., & Smith, S. L. (2007). The content of reality dating shows and viewer perceptions of dating. Journal of Communication, 57(3), 490–510. doi:10.1111/jcom.2007.57.issue-3
  • Flynn, M. A., Park, S.-Y., Morin, D. T., & Stana, A. (2015). Anything but real: Body idealization and objectification of MTV docusoap characters. Sex Roles, 72(5–6), 173–182. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0464-2
  • *Ford, T. E., Boxer, C. F., Armstrong, J., & Edel, J. R. (2008). More than “just a joke”: The prejudice-releasing function of sexist humor. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 159–170. doi:10.1177/0146167207310022
  • *Ford, T. E., Woodzicka, J. A., Petit, W. E., Richardson, K., & Lappi, S. K. (2015). Sexist humor as a trigger of state self-objectification in women. Humor, 28(2), 253–269. doi:10.1515/humor-2015-0018
  • *Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. (2009). Virtual virgins and vamps: The effects of exposure to female characters’ sexualized appearance and gaze in an immersive media environment. Sex Roles, 61, 147–157. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9599-3
  • *Fox, J., Bailenson, J. N., & Tricase, L. (2013). The embodiment of sexualized virtual selves: The Proteus effect and experiences of self-objectification via avatars. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 930–938. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.027
  • *Fox, J., Ralston, R. A., Cooper, C. K., & Jones, K. A. (2014). Sexualized avatars lead to women’s self-objectification and acceptance of rape myths. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39(3), 349–362. doi:10.1177/0361684314553578
  • Fredrickson, B., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
  • Fredrickson, B., Roberts, T., Noll, S., Quinn, D., & Twenge, J. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269–284. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.269
  • Frisby, C. M., & Aubrey, J. S. (2012). Race and genre in the use of sexual objectification in female artists’ music videos. Howard Journal of Communications, 23(1), 66–87. doi:10.1080/10646175.2012.641880
  • Fullerton, J. A., & Kendrick, A. (2000). Portrayal of men and women in U.S. Spanish-language television commercials. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(1), 128–142. doi:10.1177/107769900007700110
  • *Galdi, S., Maass, A., & Cadinu, M. (2014). Objectifying media: Their effect on gender role norms and sexual harassment of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(3), 398–413. doi:10.1177/0361684313515185
  • Ganahl, J. D., Kim, K., & Baker, S. (2003). Longitudinal analysis of network commercials: How advertisers portray gender. Media Report to Women, 31(2), 11–15.
  • Garcia Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H., Crnic, K., Wasik, B., & Garcia, H. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. doi:10.2307/1131600
  • Gervais, S., Bernard, P., Klein, O., & Allen, J. (2013). Toward a unified theory of objectification and dehumanization. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 60, 1–23.
  • *Gervais, S., Vescio, T., & Allen, J. (2011). When are people interchangeable sexual objects? The effect of gender and body type on sexual fungibility. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4), 499–513. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02016.x
  • *Gervais, S., Vesico, T. K., Förster, J., Maass, A., & Suitner, C. (2012). Seeing women as objects: The sexual body part recognition bias. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(6), 743–753. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1890
  • *Glick, P., Larsen, S., Johnson, C., & Branstiter, H. (2005). Evaluations of sexy women in low- and high-status jobs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 389–395. doi:10.1111/pwqu.2005.29.issue-4
  • *Gordon, M. (2008). Media contributions to African American girls’ focus on beauty and appearance: Exploring the consequences of sexual objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 245–256. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00433.x
  • *Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2009). Body objectification, MTV, and psychological outcomes among female adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 2840–2858. doi:10.1111/(ISSN)1559-1816
  • Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460–476.
  • Graff, K., Murnen, S., & Krause, A. K. (2013). Low-cut shirts and high-heeled shoes: Increased sexualization across time in magazine depictions of girls. Sex Roles, 69(11–12), 571–582. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0321-0
  • *Graff, K., Murnen, S., & Smolak, L. (2012). Too sexualized to be taken seriously? Perceptions of a girl in childlike vs. sexualizing clothing. Sex Roles, 66, 764–775. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0145-3
  • *Gray, K., Knobe, J., Sheskin, M., Bloom, P., & Barrett, L. (2011). More than a body: Mind perception and the nature of objectification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(6), 1207–1220. doi:10.1037/a0025883
  • Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 1–16.
  • *Gurung, R., & Chrouser, C. (2007). Predicting objectification: Do provocative clothing and observer characteristics matter? Sex Roles, 57, 91–99. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9219-z
  • *Halliwell, E., Malson, H., & Tischner, I. (2011). Are contemporary media images which seem to display women as sexually empowered actually harmful to women? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 38–45. doi:10.1177/0361684310385217
  • *Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Female “thin ideals” media images and boys’ attitudes toward girls. Sex Roles, 49(9–10), 539–544. doi:10.1023/A:1025841008820
  • *Harper, B., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). The effect of thin ideal media images on women’s self-objectification, mood, and body image. Sex Roles, 58, 649–657. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9379-x
  • *Harrison, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). Women’s sports media, self-objectification, and mental health in Black and White adolescent females. Journal of Communication, 53, 216–232. doi:10.1111/jcom.2003.53.issue-2
  • *Harrison, L. A., & Secarea, A. M. (2010). College students’ attitudes toward the sexualization of professional women athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 33(4), 403–426.
  • Hatton, E., & Trautner, M. N. (2011). Equal opportunity objectification? The sexualization of men and women on the cover of Rolling Stone. Sexuality and Culture, 15(3), 256–278. doi:10.1007/s12119-011-9093-2
  • Heflick, N., & Goldenberg, J. (2014). Seeing eye to body: The literal objectification of women. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(3), 225–229. doi:10.1177/0963721414531599
  • *Heflick, N., Goldenberg, J., Cooper, D., & Puvia, E. (2011). From women to objects: Appearance focus, target gender, and perceptions of warmth, morality, and competence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 572–581. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.020
  • Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
  • Hine, R. (2011). In the margins: The impact of sexualised images on the mental health of ageing women. Sex Roles, 65(7–8), 632–646. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9978-4
  • *Hitlan, R. T., Pryor, J. B., Hesson-McInnis, S., & Olson, M. (2009). Antecedents of gender harassment: An analysis of person and situation factors. Sex Roles, 61(11–12), 794–807. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9689-2
  • *Holland, E., & Haslam, N. (2013). Worth the weight: The objectification of overweight versus thin targets. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(4), 462–468. doi:10.1177/0361684312474800
  • *Holland, E., & Haslam, N. (2015). Cute little things: The objectification of prepubescent girls. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0361684315602887
  • Holmstrom, A. J. (2004). The effects of the media on body image: A meta-analysis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48, 196–217.
  • *Hopper, K. M., & Aubrey, J. S. (2011). Examining the impact of celebrity gossip magazine coverage of pregnant celebrities on pregnant women’s self-objectification. Communication Research, 40(6), 767–788. doi:10.1177/0093650211422062
  • *Hust, S., & Lei, M. (2008). Sexual objectification, sports programming, and music television. Media Report to Women, 36(1), 16–23.
  • Ibroscheva, E. (2007). Caught between East and West? Portrayals of gender in Bulgarian television advertisements. Sex Roles, 57(5–6), 409–418. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9261-x
  • Johnson, P., McCreary, D., & Mills, J. (2007). Effects of exposure to objectified male and female media images on men’s psychological well-being. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 8(2), 95–102. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.2.95
  • *Johnson, V., & Gurung, R. (2011). Defusing the objectification of women by other women: The role of competence. Sex Roles, 65, 177–188. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0006-5
  • *Kim, S. Y., Seo, Y. S., & Baek, K. Y. (2013). Face consciousness among South Korean women: A culture-specific extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 24–36. doi:10.1037/a0034433
  • *Kistler, M. E., & Lee, M. J. (2009). Does exposure to sexual hip-hop music videos influence the sexual attitudes of college students? Mass Communication and Society, 13(1), 67–86. doi:10.1080/15205430902865336
  • *Krawczyk, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2015). The effects of advertisements that sexually objectify women on state body dissatisfaction and judgments of women: The moderating roles of gender and internalization. Body Image, 15, 109–119. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.08.001
  • *Lanis, K., & Covell, K. (1995). Images of women in advertisements: Effects on attitudes related to sexual aggression. Sex Roles, 32(9–10), 639–649. doi:10.1007/BF01544216
  • *Lavine, H., Sweeney, D., & Wagner, S. (1999). Depicting women as sex objects in television advertisements: Effects on body dissatisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(8), 1049–1058. doi:10.1177/01461672992511012
  • *Loughnan, S., Haslam, N., Murnane, T., Vaes, J., Reynolds, C., & Suitner, C. (2010). Objectification leads to depersonalization: The denial of mind and moral concern to objectified others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 709–717.
  • Loughnan, S., & Pacilli, M. (2014). Seeing (and treating) others as sexual objects: Toward a more complete mapping of sexualization. Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 21(3), 309–325. doi:10.4473/TPM21.3.6
  • *Loughnan, S., Pina, A., Vasquez, E. A., & Puvia, E. (2013). Sexual objectification increases rape victim blame and decreases perceived suffering. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(4), 455–461. doi:10.1177/0361684313485718
  • *Machia, M., & Lamb, S. (2009). Sexualized innocence: Effects of magazine ads portraying adult women as sexy little girls. Journal of Media Psychology, 21(1), 15–24. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.21.1.15
  • *MacKay, N., & Covell, K. (1997). The impact of women in advertisements on attitudes toward women. Sex Roles, 36(9–10), 573–583. doi:10.1023/A:1025613923786
  • Manago, A. M., Ward, L. M., Lemm, K., Reed, L., & Seabrook, R. (2015). Facebook involvement, objectified body consciousness, body shame, and sexual assertiveness in college women and men. Sex Roles, 72(1–2), 1–14. doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0441-1
  • McKinley, N., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x
  • Messineo, M. J. (2008). Does advertising on Black entertainment television portray more positive gender representations compared to broadcast networks? Sex Roles, 59(9–10), 752–764. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9470-y
  • *Michaels, M. S., Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2013). Does exposure to muscularity-idealizing images have self-objectification consequences for heterosexual and sexual minority men? Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 14(2), 175–183. doi:10.1037/a0027259
  • *Milburn, M. A., Mather, R., & Conrad, S. D. (2000). The effects of viewing R-rated movie scenes that objectify women on perceptions of date rape. Sex Roles, 43(9–10), 645–664. doi:10.1023/A:1007152507914
  • Miller, M., & Summers, A. (2007). Gender differences in video game characters’ roles, appearances, and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sex Roles, 57(9–10), 733–742. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9307-0
  • *Mischner, I. H. S., van Schie, H. T., Wigboldus, D. H. J., van Baaren, R. B., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2013). Thinking big: The effect of sexually objectifying music videos on bodily self-perceptions in young women. Body Image, 10(1), 26–34. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.08.004
  • Moradi, B., & Huang, Y. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 377–398. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x
  • *Morry, M., & Staska, S. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 33(4), 269–279. doi:10.1037/h0087148
  • *Mulgrew, K. E., & Hennes, S. M. (2015). The effects of functionality- and aesthetic-focused images on Australian women’s body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 72(3–4), 127–139. doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0440-2
  • *Mulgrew, K. E., Johnson, L. M., Lane, B. R., & Katsikitis, M. (2013). The effect of aesthetic versus process images on men’s body satisfaction. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 15(4), 452–459. doi:10.1037/a0034684
  • Murnen, S. K., & Smolak, L. (2013). “I’d rather be a famous fashion model than a famous scientist”: The rewards and costs of internalizing sexualization. In E. Zurbriggen & T. A. Roberts (Eds.), The sexualization of girls and girlhood (pp. 235–256). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Nelson, M. R., & Paek, H.-J. (2008). Nudity of female and male models in primetime TV advertising across seven countries. International Journal of Advertising, 27(5), 715–744. doi:10.2501/S0265048708080281
  • *Nezlek, J. B., Krohn, W., Wilson, D., & Maruskin, L. (2015). Gender differences in reactions to the sexualization of athletes. Journal of Social Psychology, 155(1), 1–11. doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.959883
  • Noll, S., & Fredrickson, B. (1998). A meditational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00181.x
  • Nowatzki, J., & Morry, M. (2009). Women’s intentions regarding, and acceptance of, self-sexualizing behavior. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 95–107. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01477.x
  • *Overstreet, N., Quinn, D., & Marsh, K. (2015). Objectification in virtual romantic contexts: Perceived discrepancies between self and partner ideals differentially affect body consciousness in women and men. Sex Roles, 73(9–10), 442–452. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0533-6
  • *Pennel, H., & Behm-Morawitz, E. (2015). The empowering (super) heroine? The effects of sexualized female characters in superhero films on women. Sex Roles, 72(5–6), 211–220. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0455-3
  • *Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. (2007). Adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment and their notions of women as sex objects. Sex Roles, 56, 381–395. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y
  • Petersen, J., & Hyde, J. S. (2013). Peer sexual harassment and disordered eating in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 184–195. doi:10.1037/a0028247
  • Pope, H. G., Olivardia, R., Borowiecki, J. J., & Cohane, G. H. (2001). The growing commercial value of the male body: A longitudinal survey of advertising in women’s magazines. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 70, 189–192. doi:10.1159/000056252
  • *Prichard, I., & Tiggemann, M. (2012). The effect of simultaneous exercise and exposure to thin-ideal music videos on women’s state self-objectification, mood, and body satisfaction. Sex Roles, 67(3–4), 201–210. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0167-x
  • Prieler, M., & Centeno, D. (2013). Gender representation in Philippine television advertisements. Sex Roles, 69(5–6), 276–288. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0301-4
  • *Puvia, E., & Vaes, J. (2013). Being a body: Women’s appearance related self-views and their dehumanization of sexually objectified female targets. Sex Roles, 68(7–8), 484–495. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0255-y
  • Ramsey, L., & Hoyt, T. (2015). The object of desire: How being objectified creates sexual pressure for women in heterosexual relationships. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39(2), 151–170. doi:10.1177/0361684314544679
  • Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010, January). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: Henry J.Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED527859
  • *Rollero, C. (2013). Men and women facing objectification: The effects of media models on well-being, self-esteem and ambivalent sexism. Revista De Psicología Social: International Journal of Social Psychology, 28(3), 373–382. doi:10.1174/021347413807719166
  • *Romero-Sanchez, M., Toro-García, V., Horvath, M. A., & Megias, J. L. (2015). More than a magazine: Exploring the links between lads’ mags, rape myth acceptance and rape proclivity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0886260515586366
  • Rouner, D., Slater, M. D., & Domenech-Rodriguez, M. (2003). Adolescent evaluation of gender role and sexual imagery in television advertisements. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 47(3), 435–454. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4703_7
  • Rudman, L., & Borgida, E. (1995). The afterglow of construct accessibility: The behavioral consequences of priming men to view women as sexual objects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 493–517. doi:10.1006/jesp.1995.1022
  • *Schmidt, A. F., & Kistemaker, L. M. (2015). The sexualized-body-inversion hypothesis revisited: Valid indicator of sexual objectification or methodological artifact? Cognition, 134, 77–84. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.09.003
  • *Schooler, D. (2015). The woman next to me: Pairing powerful and objectifying representations of women. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 15(1), 198–212. doi:10.1111/asap.12070
  • Schooler, D., Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2004). Who’s that girl: Television’s role in the body image development of young White and Black women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 38–47. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00121.x
  • *Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2015). Media exposure, extracurricular activities, and appearance-related comments as predictors of female adolescents’ self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39(3), 375–389. doi:10.1177/0361684314554606
  • *Smith, L. R. (2015). What’s the best exposure? Examining media representation of female athletes and the impact on collegiate athletes’ self-objectification. Communication and Sport. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/2167479515577080
  • Smith, S. L., Choueiti, M., Prescott, A., & Pieper, K. (2012). Gender roles and occupations: A look at character attributes and job-related aspirations in film and television. Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media. Retrieved from http://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/full-study-gender-roles-and-occupations-v2.pdf
  • Spitzack, C. (1990). Confessing excess: Women and the politics of body reduction. Albany: State University of New York Press.
  • *Sprankle, E. L., End, C. M., & Bretz, M. N. (2012). Sexually degrading music videos and lyrics: Their effects on males’ aggression and endorsement of rape myths and sexual stereotypes. Journal of Media Psychology, 24(1), 31–39. doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000060
  • Stankiewicz, J. M., & Rosselli, F. (2008). Women as sex objects and victims in print advertisements. Sex Roles, 58(7–8), 579–589. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9359-1
  • *Starr, C., & Ferguson, G. (2012). Sexy dolls, sexy grade-schoolers? Media and maternal influences on young girls’ self-sexualization. Sex Roles, 67(7–8), 463–476. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0183-x
  • *Stone, E., Brown, C., & Jewell, J. (2015). The sexualized girl: A within-gender stereotype among elementary school children. Child Development, 86, 1604–1622. doi:10.1111/cdev.12405
  • *Strahan, E., Lafrance, A., Wilson, A., Ethier, N., Spencer, S. J., & Zanna, M. (2008). Victoria’s dirty secret: How sociocultural norms influence adolescent girls and women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 288–301. doi:10.1177/0146167207310457
  • *Swami, V., Coles, R., Wilson, E., Salem, N., Wyrozumska, K., & Furnham, A. (2010). Oppressive beliefs at play: Associations among beauty ideals and practices and individual differences in sexism, objectification of others, and media exposure. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 365–379. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01582.x
  • *ter Bogt, T. F. M., Engels, R. C. M. E., Bogers, S., & Kloosterman, M. (2010). “Shake it baby, shake it”: Media preferences, sexual attitudes, and gender stereotypes among adolescents. Sex Roles, 63(11–12), 844–859. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9815-1
  • *Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2015). The role of self-objectification in the mental health of early adolescent girls: Predictors and consequences. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 40(7), 704–711. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsv021
  • Tiggemann, M., & Williams, E. (2012). The role of self-objectification in disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning among women: A comprehensive test of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 66–75. doi:10.1177/0361684311420250
  • *Tolman, D. L., Kim, J. L., Schooler, D., & Sorsoli, C. L. (2007). Rethinking the associations between television viewing and adolescent sexuality development: Bringing gender into focus. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(1), 84.e9–84.e16. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.08.002
  • Turner, J. S. (2011). Sex and the spectacle of music videos: An examination of the portrayal of race and sexuality in music videos. Sex Roles, 64(3–4), 173–191. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9766-6
  • Uray, N., & Burnaz, S. (2003). An analysis of the portrayal of gender roles in Turkish television advertisements. Sex Roles, 48(1–2), 77–87. doi:10.1023/A:1022348813469
  • *Vaes, J., Paladino, P., & Puvia, E. (2011). Are sexualized women complete human beings? Why men and women dehumanize sexually objectified women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 774–785. doi:10.1002/ejsp.v41.6
  • *Vance, K., Sutter, M., Perrin, P., & Heesacker, M. (2015). The media’s sexual objectification of women, rape myth acceptance, and interpersonal violence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 24(5), 569–587. doi:10.1080/10926771.2015.1029179
  • *Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2012). Understanding sexual objectification: A comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication, 62(5), 869–887. doi:10.1111/jcom.2012.62.issue-5
  • *Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2013). Sexualization of adolescent boys: Media exposure and boy’s internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Men and Masculinities, 16(3), 283–306. doi:10.1177/1097184X13477866
  • *Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The role of mass media in adolescents’ sexual behaviors: Exploring the explanatory value of the three-step self-objectification process. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(3), 729–742. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0292-4
  • *Vandenbosch, L., Muise, A., Eggermont, S., & Impett, E. A. (2015). Sexualizing reality television: Associations with trait and state self-objectification. Body Image, 13, 62–66. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.01.003
  • *Wack, E., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2008). Cyber sexy: Electronic game play and perceptions of attractiveness among college-aged men. Body Image, 5(4), 365–374. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.06.003
  • Wallis, C. (2011). Performing gender: A content analysis of gender display in music videos. Sex Roles, 64(3–4), 160–172. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9814-2
  • *Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(1), 1–15. doi:10.1023/A:1014068031532
  • Ward, L. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: A review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23(3), 347–388. doi:10.1016/S0273-2297(03)00013-3
  • *Ward, L. M., & Friedman, K. (2006). Using TV as a guide: Association between television viewing and adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(1), 133–156. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00125.x
  • Ward, L. M., Hansbrough, E., & Walker, E. (2005). Contributions of music video exposure to Black adolescents’ gender and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 143–166. doi:10.1177/0743558404271135
  • Ward, L. M., Rivadeneyra, R., Thomas, K., Day, K., & Epstein, M. (2012). A woman’s worth: Analyzing the sexual objectification of Black women in music videos. In E. Zurbriggen & T.-A. Roberts (Eds.), The sexualization of girls and girlhood: Causes, consequences, and resistance (pp. 39–62). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • *Ward, L. M., Seabrook, R. C., Manago, A., & Reed, L. (2016). Contributions of diverse media to self-sexualization among undergraduate women and men. Sex Roles, 74(1), 12–23. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0548-z
  • *Ward, L. M., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The impact of men’s magazines on adolescent boys’ objectification and courtship beliefs. Journal of Adolescence, 39, 49–58. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.12.004
  • *Wookey, M., Graves, N., & Butler, J. C. (2009). Effects of a sexy appearance on perceived competence of women. Journal of Social Psychology, 149(1), 116–118. doi:10.3200/SOCP.149.1.116-118
  • Wright, P. J. (2009). Sexual socialization messages in mainstream entertainment mass media: A review and synthesis. Sexuality and Culture, 13, 181–200. doi:10.1007/s12119-009-9050-5
  • *Wright, P. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2015). Men’s objectifying media consumption, objectification of women, and attitudes supportive of violence against women. Archives of Sexual Behavior. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0644-8
  • *Yao, M., Mahood, C., & Linz, D. (2009). Sexual priming, gender stereotyping, and likelihood to sexually harass: Examining the cognitive effects of playing a sexually explicit video game. Sex Roles, 62, 77–88. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9695-4
  • Zurbriggen, E. (2013). Objectification, self-objectification, and societal change. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 1, 188–215. doi:10.5964/jspp.v1i1.94
  • *Zurbriggen, E., Ramsey, L., & Jaworski, B. (2011). Self- and partner-objectification in romantic relationships: Associations with media consumption and relationship satisfaction. Sex Roles, 64, 449–462. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9933-4

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.