Intersectional Experienced Stigma and Psychosocial Syndemic Conditions in a Sample of Black Men Who Have Sex with Men Engaged in Sex Work (BMSM-SW) from Six US Cities

References

• Alvidrez, J., Greenwood, G. L., Johnson, T. L., & Parker, K. L. (2021). Intersectionality in public health research: A view from the National Institutes of Health. American Journal of Public Health, 111(1), 95–97. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andresen, E. M., Malmgren, J. A., Carter, W. B., & Patrick, D. L. (1994). Screening for depression in well older adults: Evaluation of a short form of the CES-D. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 10(2), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(18)30622-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arscott, J., Humphreys, J., Merwin, E., & Relf, M. (2020b). “That guy is gay and black. That's a red flag.” How HIV stigma and racism affect perception of risk among young Black men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 24(1), 173–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02607-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baral, S. D., Friedman, M. R., Geibel, S., Rebe, K., Bozhinov, B., Diouf, D., Sabin, K., Holland, C. E., Chan, R., & Cáceres, C. F. (2015). Male sex workers: Practices, contexts, and vulnerabilities for HIV acquisition and transmission. The Lancet, 385(9964), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60801-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauermeister, J. A., Eaton, L., Meanley, S., Pingel, E. S., & Partnership, U. (2017). Transactional sex with regular and casual partners among young men who have sex with men in the Detroit metro area. American Journal of Men’s Health, 11(3), 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988315609110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckwith, T. (2020). HIV-related stigma: A negative & intersecting life experience. Modern Psychological Studies, 26(1), 1–25. https://scholar.utc.edu/mps/vol26/iss1/3
   Google Scholar
• Benoit, C., McCarthy, B., & Jansson, M. (2015). Stigma, sex work, and substance use: A comparative analysis. Sociology of Health & Illness, 37(3), 437–451. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhambhani, Y., Flynn, M. K., Kellum, K. K., & Wilson, K. G. (2019). Examining sexual racism and body dissatisfaction among men of color who have sex with men: The moderating role of body image inflexibility. Body Image, 28, 142–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobashev, G. V., Zule, W. A., Osilla, K. C., Kline, T. L., & Wechsberg, W. M. (2009). Transactional sex among men and women in the south at high risk for HIV and other STIs. Journal of Urban Health, 86(1), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-009-9368-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, K. T., Yoon, I. S., Houang, S. T., Downing, M. J., Grov, C., & Hirshfield, S. (2019). Transactional sex, substance use, and sexual risk: Comparing pay direction for an internet-based US sample of men who have sex with men. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 16(3), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0366-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowleg, L. (2012). The problem with the phrase women and minorities: Intersectionality—an important theoretical framework for public health. American Journal of Public Health, 102(7), 1267–1273. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennan, D. J., Souleymanov, R., George, C., Newman, P. A., Hart, T. A., Asakura, K., & Betancourt, G. (2015). Masculinity, muscularity, and HIV sexual risk among gay and bisexual men of color. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(4), 393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brookfield, S., Dean, J., Forrest, C., Jones, J., & Fitzgerald, L. (2020). Barriers to accessing sexual health services for transgender and male sex workers: A systematic qualitative meta-summary. AIDS and Behavior, 24(3), 682–696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02453-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bukowski, L. A., Chandler, C. J., Creasy, S. L., Matthews, D. D., Friedman, M. R., & Stall, R. D. (2018). Characterizing the HIV care continuum and identifying barriers and facilitators to HIV diagnosis and viral suppression among Black transgender women in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 79(4), 413–420. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001831
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler, C. J., Meunier, É., Eaton, L. A., Andrade, E., Bukowski, L. A., Matthews, D. D., Raymond, H. F., Stall, R. D., & Friedman, M. R. (2020). Syndemic health disparities and sexually transmitted infection burden among Black men who have sex with men engaged in sex work in the US. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(4), 1627–1640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01828-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1(1), 139–167. http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1
   Google Scholar
• Crofts, T. (2014). Regulation of the male sex industry. In V. Minichiello & J. Scott (Eds.), Male sex work and society (pp. 178–197). Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Decker, M. R., Crago, A.-L., Chu, S. K., Sherman, S. G., Seshu, M. S., Buthelezi, K., Dhaliwal, M., & Beyrer, C. (2015). Human rights violations against sex workers: Burden and effect on HIV. The Lancet, 385(9963), 186–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60800-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dilley, J., McFarland, W., & Kellogg, T. (2000). Use of a unique testing code among anonymous testers to track repeat tests, estimate HIV incidence, and identify risk factors for HIV seroconversion [ abstract MoPpD1132]. 13th International AIDS Conference, Durban, South Africa. International AIDS Society.
   Google Scholar
• Dyer, T., Shoptaw, S., Guadamuz, T. E., Plankey, M., Kao, U., Ostrow, D., Chmiel, J. S., Herrick, A., & Stall, R. (2012). Application of syndemic theory to black men who have sex with men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Journal of Urban Health, 89(4), 697–708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9674-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyer, T., Turpin, R. E., Stall, R., Khan, M. R., Nelson, L., Brewer, R., Friedman, M. R., Mimiaga, M., Cook, R., O’Cleirigh, C., & Mayer, K. H. (2020). Latent profile analysis of a syndemic of vulnerability factors on incident STI in a cohort of Black men who have sex with men only (BMSMO) and Black men who have sex with men and women (BMSMW) in the HPTN061 study. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 47(9), 571–579. https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0000000000001208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earnshaw, V. A., Smith, L. R., Chaudoir, S. R., Amico, K. R., & Copenhaver, M. M. (2013). HIV stigma mechanisms and well-being among PLWH: A test of the HIV stigma framework. AIDS and Behavior, 17(5), 1785–1795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0437-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwood, G. L., Wilson, A., Bansal, G. P., Barnhart, C., Barr, E., Berzon, R., Boyce, C. A., Elwood, W., Gamble-George, J., Glenshaw, M., Henry, R., Iida, H., Jenkins, R. A., Lee, S., Malekzadeh, A., Morris, K., Perrin, P., Rice, E., Sufian, M., … Gaist, P. (2021). HIV-Related stigma research as a priority at the National Institutes of Health. AIDS and Behavior, 26(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03260-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer, G. P., Kellogg, T. A., McFarland, W. C., Wong, E., Louie, B., Williams, I., Dilley, J., Page- Shafer, K., & Klausner, J. D. (2003). Low incidence and prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among sexually active non-intravenous drug-using adults, San Francisco, 1997–2000. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 30(12), 919–924. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.olq.0000091152.31366.e6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, J. W., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2019). Intersectional decomposition analysis with differential exposure, effects, and construct. Social Science & Medicine, 226, 254–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.01.033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerrigan, D., Karver, T. S., Barrington, C., Davis, W., Donastorg, Y., Perez, M., Gomez, H., Mbwambo, J., Likindikoki, S., Shembilu, C., Mantsios, A., Beckham, S. W., Galai, N., & Chan, K. S. (2021). Development of the experiences of sex work stigma scale using item response theory: Implications for research on the social determinants of HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 25(2), 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-021-03211-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline, N. (2020). Syndemic statuses: Intersectionality and mobilizing for LGBTQ+ Latinx health equity after the Pulse shooting. Social Science & Medicine, 295, 113260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Social Science & Medicine, 30(12), 1273–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(90)90307-E
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576–1596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulesza, M., Larimer, M. E., & Rao, D. (2013). Substance use related stigma: What we know and the way forward. Journal of Addictive Behaviors, Therapy & Rehabilitation, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.4172/2324-9005.1000106
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lichtenstein, B., Kay, E. S., Klinger, I., & Mutchler, M. G. (2018). Ricky and Lucy: Gender stereotyping among young Black men who have sex with men in the US Deep South and the implications for HIV risk in a severely affected population. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 20(3), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2017.1347280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logie, C. H., James, L., Tharao, W., Loutfy, M. R., & Daniels, K. (2011). HIV, gender, race, sexual orientation, and sex work: A qualitative study of intersectional stigma experienced by HIV-positive women in Ontario, Canada. PLoS Medicine, 8(11), e1001124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnani, R., Sabin, K., Saidel, T., & Heckathorn, D. (2005). Review of sampling hard-to-reach and hidden populations for HIV surveillance. AIDS, 19(Suppl. 2), S67–S72. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000172879.20628.e1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews, D. D., Herrick, A., Coulter, R. W., Friedman, M. R., Mills, T. C., Eaton, L. A., Wilson, P. A., Stall, R. D., & Team, P. S. (2016). Running backwards: Consequences of current HIV incidence rates for the next generation of black MSM in the United States. AIDS and Behavior, 20(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1158-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meunier, É., Cai, X., Bamonte, A., Callander, D., & Schrimshawc, E. W. (2021). Exchange sex and condom use among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men who use social and sexual networking technologies. Annals of LGBTQ Public and Population Health, 2(2), 166–180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/LGBTQ-2020-0058
   Google Scholar
• Mgbako, O., Park, S. H., Callander, D., Brinker, D. A., Kuhner, C., Carrico, A. W., Rendina, H. J., & Duncan, D. T. (2019). Transactional sex, condomless anal sex, and HIV risk among men who have sex with men. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 30(8), 795–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462418823411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minichiello, V., Scott, J., & Callander, D. (2013). New pleasures and old dangers: Reinventing male sex work. Journal of Sex Research, 50(3–4), 263–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.760189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minichiello, V., Scott, J., & Callander, D. (2015). A new public health context to understand male sex work. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 282. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1498-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nerlander, L. M., Hess, K. L., Sionean, C., Rose, C. E., Thorson, A., Broz, D., & Paz-Bailey, G. (2017). Exchange sex and HIV infection among men who have sex with men: 20 US cities, 2011. AIDS and Behavior, 21(8), 2283–2294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1450-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oga, E. A., Kraemer, J., Stewart, C., Mbote, D., Njuguna, S., Stockton, M., & Nyblade, L. (2020). Experienced sex-work stigma in male and female sex workers in Kenya: Development and validation of a scale. Stigma and Health, 5(3), 342–350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/sah0000205
   Google Scholar
• Quinn, K. G. (2019). Applying an intersectional framework to understand syndemic conditions among young Black gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men. Social Science & Medicine 295, 112779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112779
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn, K. G., Reed, S. J., Dickson-Gomez, J., & Kelly, J. A. (2018). An exploration of syndemic factors that influence engagement in HIV care among Black men. Qualitative Health Research, 28(7), 1077–1087. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318759529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raine, G. (2021). Violence against male sex workers: A systematic scoping review of quantitative data. Journal of Homosexuality, 68(2), 336–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1656029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramos, S. R., Lardier, D. T., Jr, Opara, I., Turpin, R. E., Boyd, D. T., Gutierrez, J. I., Jr, Williams, C. N., Nelson, L. E., & Kershaw, T. (2021). Intersectional effects of sexual orientation concealment, internalized homophobia, and gender expression on sexual identity and HIV risk among sexual minority men of color: A path analysis. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 32(4), 495. https://doi.org/10.1097/JNC.0000000000000274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAS Institute. (2013) . Statistical analysis software users’ guide version 9.4. SAS Institute Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Singer, M. C., Bulled, N., Ostrach, B., & Mendenhall, E. (2017). Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health. The Lancet, 389(10072), 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30003-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, M. C., Erickson, P. I., Badiane, L., Diaz, R., Ortiz, D., Abraham, T., & Nicolaysen, A. M. (2006). Syndemics, sex and the city: Understanding sexually transmitted diseases in social and cultural context. Social Science & Medicine, 63(8), 2010–2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.05.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• StataCorp. (2019). Stata 16 base reference manual. Stata Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tsai, A. C., & Burns, B. F. (2015). Syndemics of psychosocial problems and HIV risk: A systematic review of empirical tests of the disease interaction concept. Social Science & Medicine, 139, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underhill, K., Morrow, K. M., Colleran, C., Holcomb, R., Calabrese, S. K., Operario, D., Galárraga, O., & Mayer, K. H. (2015). A qualitative study of medical mistrust, perceived discrimination, and risk behavior disclosure to clinicians by US male sex workers and other men who have sex with men: Implications for biomedical HIV prevention. Journal of Urban Health, 92(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-9961-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underhill, K., Morrow, K. M., Colleran, C. M., Holcomb, R., Operario, D., Calabrese, S. K., Galárraga, O., Mayer, K. H., & Newman, C. E. (2014). Access to healthcare, HIV/STI testing, and preferred pre-exposure prophylaxis providers among men who have sex with men and men who engage in street-based sex work in the US. PLOS One, 9(11), e112425. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valeri, L., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2013). Mediation analysis allowing for exposure-mediator interactions and causal interpretation: Theoretical assumptions and implementation with SAS and SPSS macros. Psychological Methods, 18(2), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VanderWeele, T. J., & Vansteelandt, S. (2009). Conceptual issues concerning mediation, interventions and composition. Statistics and Its Interface, 2(4), 457–468. https://dx.doi.org/10.4310/SII.2009.v2.n4.a7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VanderWeele, T. J., & Vansteelandt, S. (2010). Odds ratios for mediation analysis for a dichotomous outcome. American Journal of Epidemiology, 172(12), 1339–1348. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwq332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswasam, N., Schwartz, S., & Baral, S. (2020). Characterizing the role of intersecting stigmas and sustained inequities in driving HIV syndemics across low-and middle-income settings. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 15(4), 243. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0000000000000630
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, S. M., Braksmajer, A., Coston, B., Yoon, I., Grov, C., Downing, M. J., Teran, R., & Hirshfield, S. (2020). A syndemic model of exchange sex among HIV-positive men who have sex with men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(6), 1965–1978. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01628-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, S. M., Kral, A. H., Lamb, S., Goldshear, J. L., Wenger, L., & Bluthenthal, R. N. (2021). Correlates of transactional sex and violent victimization among men who inject drugs in Los Angeles and San Francisco, California. Journal of Urban Health, 98(1), 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00494-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar