96
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Association of Recalled Childhood Sex-Typed Behavior with Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Iranian Adult Males and Females

, , , , &

References

  • Ablaza, C., Kabátek, J., & Perales, F. (2022). Are sibship characteristics predictive of same sex marriage? An examination of fraternal birth order and female fecundity effects in population-level administrative data from the Netherlands. The Journal of Sex Research, 59(6), 671–683. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2021.1974330
  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Harlaar, N., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., Johansson, A., von der Pahlen, B., & Sandnabba, N. K. (2010). Common genetic effects of gender atypical behavior in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A study of Finnish twins. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9457-3
  • Alavi, K., Nodushan, A. H. J., & Eftekhar, M. (2014). Sexual orientation in patients with gender identity disorder. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry & Clinical Psychology, 20(1), 43–49. http://ijpcp.iums.ac.ir/article-1-2137-en.html
  • Amnesty International. (1996). Islamic penal code of Iran. https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=y&docid=52b812384
  • Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(3), 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.524
  • Bailey, J. M., Kim, P. Y., Hills, A., & Linsenmeier, J. A. (1997). Butch, femme, or straight acting? Partner preferences of gay men and lesbians. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(5), 960. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.5.960
  • Bailey, J. M., Vasey, P. L., Diamond, L. M., Breedlove, S. M., Vilain, E., & Epprecht, M. (2016). Sexual orientation, controversy, and science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(2), 45–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616637616
  • Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43
  • Bartlett, N. H., & Vasey, P. L. (2006). A retrospective study of childhood gender-atypical behavior in Samoan fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(6), 659–666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9055-1
  • Berenbaum, S. A., & Resnick, S. M. (1997). Early androgen effects on aggression in children and adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 22(7), 505–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(97)00049-8
  • Besharat, M. A., Golestanipour, A., & Lavasani, M. G. (2018). A comparison between homosexuals and heterosexuals based on personality characteristics, parental bonding and levels of mental health. Journal of Psychological Science, 17(69), 517–530. https://sid.ir/paper/93021/en
  • Blackwood, E. (1998). Tombois in West Sumatra: Constructing masculinity and erotic desire. Cultural Anthropology, 13(4), 491–521. https://doi.org/10.1525/can.1998.13.4.491
  • Blanchard, R. (1988). Nonhomosexual gender dysphoria. The Journal of Sex Research, 24(1), 188–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498809551410
  • Blanchard, R. (2018). Fraternal birth order, family size, and male homosexuality: Meta-analysis of studies spanning 25 years. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1007-4
  • Blanchard, R. (2023). Studying fraternal birth order in homosexual women and bisexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 52(7), 2973–2978. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02441-1
  • Bogaert, A. F. (2003). Interaction of older brothers and sex-typing in the prediction of sexual orientation in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32(2), 129–134. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022827524721
  • Breedlove, S. M. (2017). Prenatal influences on human sexual orientation: Expectations versus data. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(6), 1583–1592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0904-2
  • Brown, W. M., Hines, M., Fane, B. A., & Breedlove, S. M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior, 42(4), 380–386. https://doi.org/10.1006/hbeh.2002.1830
  • Brown, C. S., & Stone, E. A. (2018). Environmental and social contributions to children’s gender-typed toy play: The role of family, peers, and media. In E. S. Weisgram & L. M. Dinella (Eds.), Gender typing of children’s toys: How early play experiences impact development (pp. 121–140). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000077-007
  • Burri, A., Cherkas, L., Spector, T., Rahman, Q., & Cherny, S. (2011). Genetic and environmental influences on female sexual orientation, childhood gender typicality and adult gender identity. PLOS ONE, 6(7), e21982. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021982
  • Burri, A., Spector, T., & Rahman, Q. (2015). Common genetic factors among sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, and number of sex partners in female twins: Implications for the evolution of homosexuality. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 12(4), 1004–1011. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsm.12847
  • Caldera, Y. M., Huston, A. C., & O’Brien, M. (1989). Social interactions and play patterns of parents and toddlers with feminine, masculine, and neutral toys. Child Development, 60(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131072
  • Cardoso, F. L. (2009). Recalled sex-typed behavior in childhood and sports’ preferences in adulthood of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual men from Brazil, Turkey, and Thailand. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(5), 726–736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9312-6
  • Cerwenka, S., Nieder, T. O., Cohen-Kettenis, P., De Cuypere, G., Haraldsen, I. R. H., Kreukels, B. P. C., & Richter-Appelt, H. (2014). Sexual behavior of gender-dysphoric individuals before gender-confirming interventions: A European multicenter study. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 40(5), 457–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2013.772550
  • Chivers, M. L., & Bailey, J. M. (2000). Sexual orientation of female-to-male transsexuals: A comparison of homosexual and nonhomosexual types. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(3), 259–278. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1001915530479
  • Davies, S. (2007). Challenging gender norms: Five genders among Bugis in Indonesia. Gale Cengage.
  • Dinella, L. M., & Weisgram, E. S. (2018). Gender-typing of children’s toys: Causes, consequences, and correlates. Sex Roles, 79(5), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0943-3
  • Drummond, K. D., Bradley, S. J., Peterson-Badali, M., & Zucker, K. J. (2008). A follow-up study of girls with gender identity disorder. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.34
  • Ehrhardt, A. A., Grisanti, G., & McCauley, E. A. (1979). Female-to-male transsexuals compared to lesbians: Behavioral patterns of childhood and adolescent development. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 8(6), 481–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01541415
  • Elliston, D. A. (1999). Negotiating transnational sexual economies: Female mahu and same-sex sexuality in “Tahiti and her islands. In E. Blackwood & S. E. Wieringa (Eds.), Female desires: Same-sex relationships and transgender practices across cultures (pp. 230–252). Columbia University Press
  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
  • Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender? Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep35566
  • Gómez Jiménez, F. R., Court, L., & Vasey, P. L. (2020). A retrospective study of childhood sex-typed behavior in Istmo Zapotec men, women, and muxes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01544-6
  • Gomez Jimenez, F. R., Semenyna, S. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2020). The relationship between fraternal birth order and childhood sex‐atypical behavior among the Istmo Zapotec muxes. Developmental Psychobiology, 62(6), 792–803. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21987
  • Gómez Jiménez, F., & Vasey, P. (2021). Muxes. In A. E. Goldberg & G. Beemyn (Eds.), The SAGE encyclopedia of trans studies (Vol. 2, pp. 556–558). SAGE Publications, Incorporated. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781544393858
  • Gottschalk, L. (2003). Same-sex sexuality and childhood gender non-conformity: A spurious connection. Journal of Gender Studies, 12(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/0958923032000067808
  • Goymann, W., Brumm, H., & Kappeler, P. M. (2022). Biological sex is binary, even though there is a rainbow of sex roles. BioEssays, 45(2), e2200173. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.202200173
  • Griffiths, P. (2020). Sex is real. Aeon. https://aeon.co/essays/the-existence-of-biological-sex-is-no-constraint-on-human-diversity
  • Grimbos, T., Dawood, K., Burriss, R. P., Zucker, K. J., & Puts, D. A. (2010). Sexual orientation and the second to fourth finger length ratio: A meta-analysis in men and women. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124(2), 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018764
  • Hines, M. (2008). Early androgen influences on human neural and behavioural development. Early Human Development, 84(12), 805–807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2008.09.006
  • Hines, M. (2010). Sex-related variation in human behavior and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(10), 448–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.07.005
  • Jafari, F. (2014). Transsexuality under surveillance in Iran: Clerical control of Khomeini’s fatwas. Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 10(2), 31–51. https://doi.org/10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.10.2.31
  • Jaspal, R. (2016). Islam and homosexuality. In A. Wong; M. Wickramasinghe; R. Hoogland, & N. A. Naples (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of gender and sexuality studies (pp. 1–7). John Wiley and Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss543
  • Javaheri, F. (2010). A study of transsexuality in Iran. Iranian Studies, 43(3), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/00210861003693893
  • Johnson, L. L., Bradley, S. J., Birkenfeld-Adams, A. S., Kuksis, M. A. R., Maing, D. M., Mitchell, J. N., & Zucker, K. J. (2004). A parent-report gender identity questionnaire for children. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33(2), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014325.68094.f3
  • Khorashad, B. S., Roshan, G. M., Reid, A. G., Aghili, Z., Moghadam, M. D., Khazai, B., Hiradfar, M., Afkhamizadeh, M., Ghaemi, N., Talaei, A., Abbaszadegan, M. R., Aarabi, A., Dastmalchi, S., & Van de Grift, T. C. (2018). Childhood sex-typed behavior and gender change in individuals with 46,XY and 46,XX disorders of sex development: An Iranian multicenter study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(8), 2287–2298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1281-9
  • Khorashad, B. S., Roshan, G. M., Talaei, A., Arezoomandan, S., & Sadr, M. (2019). Views of individuals with gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development on sexism: An Iranian study. International Journal of Transgenderism, 20(4), 459–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2018.1445573
  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. W.B. Saunders.
  • Kirk, K. M., Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Measurement models for sexual orientation in a community twin sample. Behavior Genetics, 30(4), 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026557719181
  • Kishida, M., & Rahman, Q. (2015). Fraternal birth order and extreme right-handedness as predictors of sexual orientation and gender nonconformity in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(5), 1493–1501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0474-0
  • Korycki, K., & Nasirzadeh, A. (2013). Homophobia as a tool of statecraft: Iran and its queers. In M. L. Weiss & M. J. Bosia (Eds.), Global homophobia: States, movements, and the politics of oppression (pp. 174–195). University of Illinois Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/j.ctt3fh5hk
  • Kreukels, B. P. C., & van de Grift, T. C. (2022). Gender and sexuality in disorders/differences of sex development. In D. P. VanderLaan & W. I. Wong (Eds.), Gender and sexuality development: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 301–322). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84273-4_11
  • Kung, K. T. F., Louie, K., Spencer, D., & Hines, M. (2024). Prenatal androgen exposure and sex-typical play behaviour: A meta-analysis of classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 159, 105616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105616
  • Lawrence, A. A. (2010). Sexual orientation versus age of onset as bases for typologies (subtypes) for gender identity disorder in adolescents and adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(2), 514–545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9594-3
  • Li, G., Kung, K. T. F., & Hines, M. (2017). Childhood gender-typed behavior and adolescent sexual orientation: A longitudinal population-based study. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 764–777. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000281
  • Mathews, G. A., Fane, B. A., Conway, G. S., Brook, C. G. D., & Hines, M. (2009). Personality and congenital adrenal hyperplasia: Possible effects of prenatal androgen exposure. Hormones and Behavior, 55(2), 285–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.11.007
  • Maughan, B., & Rutter, M. (1997). Retrospective reporting of childhood adversity: Issues in assessing long-term recall. Journal of Personality Disorders, 11(1), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.1997.11.1.19
  • McFadden, D. (2011). Sexual orientation and the auditory system. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 32(2), 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2011.02.001
  • Murray, S. O. (2002). Homosexualities. University of Chicago Press.
  • Najmabadi, A. (2005). Women with mustaches and men without beards: Gender and sexual anxieties of Iranian modernity. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520931381
  • Najmabadi, A. (2011). Verdicts of science, rulings of faith: Transgender/sexuality in contemporary Iran. Social Research an International Quarterly, 78(2), 533–556. https://doi.org/10.1353/sor.2011.0020
  • Najmabadi, A. (2014). Professing selves: Transsexuality and same-sex desire in contemporary Iran. Duke University Press.
  • Nieder, T. O., Herff, M., Cerwenka, S., Preuss, W. F., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., De Cuypere, G., Hebold Haraldsen, I. R., & Richter-Appelt, H. (2011). Age of onset and sexual orientation in transsexual males and females. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 8(3), 783–791. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02142.x
  • Pasterski, V., Hindmarsh, P., Geffner, M., Brook, C., Brain, C., & Hines, M. (2007). Increased aggression and activity level in 3- to 11-year-old girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Hormones and Behavior, 52(3), 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.05.015
  • Petterson, L. J., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Sex, sexual orientation, gender atypicality, and indicators of depression and anxiety in childhood and adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(5), 1383–1392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0690-x
  • Petterson, L. J., Wrightson, C. R., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Recalled gendered behavior in childhood: A comparison of androphilic men, gynephilic men, and androphilic women in Japan. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(1), 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0781-8
  • Phoenix, C. H., Goy, R. W., Gerall, A. A., & Young, W. C. (1959). Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig 1. Endocrinology, 65(3), 369–382. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo-65-3-369
  • Rahimi, B. (2015). Censorship and the Islamic republic: Two modes of regulatory measures for media in Iran. The Middle East Journal, 69(3), 358–378. https://doi.org/10.3751/69.3.12
  • Rahman, Q., Xu, Y., Lippa, R. A., & Vasey, P. L. (2020). Prevalence of sexual orientation across 28 nations and its association with gender equality, economic development, and individualism. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 595–606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01590-0
  • Rieger, G., Holmes, L., Watts-Overall, T. M., Gruia, D. C., Bailey, J. M., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2020). Gender nonconformity of bisexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2481–2495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01766-z
  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A., Gygax, L., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46
  • Roshan, G. M., Talaei, A., Sadr, M., Arezoomandan, S., Kazemi, S., & Khorashad, B. S. (2019). Recalled pre-school activities among adults with gender dysphoria who seek gender confirming treatment—An Iranian study. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 42, 57–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2019.03.028
  • Ross, M. W. (1980). Retrospective distortion in homosexual research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 9(6), 523–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01542156
  • Sadek, M. (1994). Response to “A note on the study of homosexuality in the Arab/Islamic civilization”. Arab Studies Journal, 2(1), 65–65. https://go.exlibris.link/PJY00dDC
  • Sadr, M., Khorashad, B. S., Talaei, A., Fazeli, N., & Hönekopp, J. (2020). 2D: 4D suggests a role of prenatal testosterone in gender dysphoria. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 421–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01630-0
  • Sakaluk, J. K., & Short, S. D. (2017). A methodological review of exploratory factor analysis in sexuality research: Used practices, best practices, and data analysis resources. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1137538
  • Sax, L. (2002). How common is intersex? A response to Anne Fausto-Sterling. The Journal of Sex Research, 39(3), 174–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490209552139
  • Semenyna, S. W., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Birth order and recalled childhood gender nonconformity in Samoan men and fa’afafine. Developmental Psychobiology, 59(3), 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21498
  • Semenyna, S. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). The relationship between adult occupational preferences and childhood gender nonconformity among Samoan women, men, and fa’afafine. Human Nature, 27(3), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-016-9258-7
  • Singh, D., Bradley, S. J., & Zucker, K. J. (2021). A follow-up study of boys with gender identity disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 632784–632784. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.632784
  • Singh, D., Vidaurri, M., Zambarano, R. J., & Dabbs, J. M. (1999). Lesbian erotic role identification: Behavioral, morphological, and hormonal correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(6), 1035–1049. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.1035
  • Sinnott, M. J. (2004). Toms and Dees: Transgender identity and female same-sex relationships in Thailand. University of Hawaii Press.
  • Smith, Y. L. S., van Goozen, S. H. M., Kuiper, A. J., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2005). Transsexual subtypes: Clinical and theoretical significance. Psychiatry Research, 137(3), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2005.01.008
  • Steensma, T. D., McGuire, J. K., Kreukels, B. P., Beekman, A. J., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2013). Factors associated with desistence and persistence of childhood gender dysphoria: A quantitative follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(6), 582–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.03.016
  • Steensma, T. D., van der Ende, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Cohen‐Kettenis, P. T. (2013). Gender variance in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A prospective study. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10(11), 2723–2733. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02701.x
  • Swift-Gallant, A., Coome, L. A., Monks, D. A., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2018). Gender nonconformity and birth order in relation to anal sex role among gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(4), 1041–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0980-y
  • Talaei, A., Hedjazi, A., Badieyan Moosavi, N., Dadgarmoghaddam, M., Lotfinejad, N., & Khorashad, B. S. (2022). The epidemiology of gender dysphoria in Iran: The first nationwide study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(4), 1881–1889. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02250-y
  • Thomas, W. (1997). Navajo cultural constructions of gender and sexuality. In S. E. Jacobs; W. Thomas, & S. Lang (Eds.), Two-spirit people: Native American gender identity, sexuality, and spirituality (pp. 156–173). University of Illinois Press.
  • Totman, R. (2011). The third sex: Kathoey: Thailand’s ladyboys. Souvenir Press.
  • VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Elevated kin-directed altruism emerges in childhood and is linked to feminine gender expression in Samoan fa’afafine: A retrospective study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(1), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0884-2
  • VanderLaan, D. P., Skorska, M. N., Peragine, D. E., & Coome, L. A. (2022). Carving the biodevelopment of same-sex sexual orientation at its joints. In D. P. VanderLaan & W. I. Wong (Eds.), Gender and sexuality development: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 491–537). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84273-4_17
  • Vasey, P. L. (2023). Objectivity, inter-subjectivity, and male femininity across cultures. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 52(6), 2285–2286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02605-7
  • Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2021). Fa’afafine. In T. K. Shackelford & V. A. Weekes-Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of evolutionary psychological science (pp. 2875–2876). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_46
  • Wallien, M. S. C., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2008). Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(12), 1413–1423. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31818956b9
  • Watts, T. M., Holmes, L., Raines, J., Orbell, S., & Rieger, G. (2018). Gender nonconformity of identical twins with discordant sexual orientations: Evidence from childhood photographs. Developmental Psychology, 54(4), 788. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000461
  • Weisgram, E. S. (2016). The cognitive construction of gender stereotypes: Evidence for the dual pathways model of gender differentiation. Sex Roles, 75(7), 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0624-z
  • Weisgram, E. S. (2022). Gender, toys, and play: How gendered early experiences shape later development. In D. P. VanderLaan & W. I. Wong (Eds.), Gender and sexuality development: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 207–232). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84273-4_7
  • Whitam, F. L. (1983). Culturally invariable properties of male homosexuality - tentative conclusions from cross-cultural research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 12(3), 207–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01542072
  • Whitam, F. L. (1987). A cross-cultural perspective on homosexuality, transvestism and trans-sexualism. In G. Wilson (Ed.), Variant sexuality (Routledge revivals): Research and theory (pp. 176–201). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315850719
  • Whitam, F. L. (1997). Culturally universal aspects of male homosexual transvestites and transsexuals. In B. Bullough; V. L. Bullough, & J. Elias (Eds.), Gender blending (pp. 189–203). Prometheus Books.
  • Whitam, F. L., Daskalos, C., Sobolewski, C. G., & Padilla, P. (1998). The emergence of lesbian sexuality and identity cross-culturally: Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018605808229
  • Whitam, F. L., & Mathy, R. M. (1986). Male homosexuality in four societies: Brazil, Guatemala, the Philippines, and the United States. Greenwood.
  • Whitam, F. L., & Mathy, R. M. (1991). Childhood cross-gender behavior of homosexual females in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 20(2), 151–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01541941
  • Wisniewski, A. B., Espinoza-Varas, B., Aston, C. E., Edmundson, S., Champlin, C. A., Pasanen, E. G., & McFadden, D. (2014). Otoacoustic emissions, auditory evoked potentials and self-reported gender in people affected by disorders of sex development (DSD). Hormones and Behavior, 66(3), 467–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.07.004
  • Wood, E., Desmarais, S., & Gugula, S. (2002). The impact of parenting experience on gender stereotyped toy play of children. Sex Roles, 47(1/2), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020679619728
  • Xu, Y., Norton, S., & Rahman, Q. (2019). Early life conditions and adolescent sexual orientation: A prospective birth cohort study. Developmental Psychology, 55(6), 1226–1243. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000704
  • Xu, Y., & Rahman, Q. (2024). Childhood gender nonconformity and sexual orientation disparities in depressive symptoms: The role of parental attitudes. LGBT Health. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2023.0203
  • Zheng, L., & Zheng, Y. (2016). Gender nonconformity and butch–femme identity among lesbians in China. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(2), 186–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1058890
  • Zucker, K. J. (1990). Gender identity disorders in children: Clinical descriptions and natural history. In R. Blanchard & B. W. Steiner (Eds.), Clinical management of gender identity disorders in children and adults (pp. 3–23). American Psychiatric Association.
  • Zucker, K. J., Mitchell, J. N., Bradley, S. J., Tkachuk, J., Cantor, J. M., & Allin, S. M. (2006). The Recalled Childhood Gender Identity/Gender Role Questionnaire: Psychometric properties. Sex Roles, 54(7–8), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9019-x

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.