Perceptions of Personal Sex Discrimination: The Role of Belief in a Just World and Situational Ambiguity

REFERENCES

• Birt , C. M. and Dion , K. L. 1987 . Relative deprivation theory and responses to discrimination in a gay male and lesbian sample . British Journal of Social Psychology , 26 : 139 – 145 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correia , I. , Vala , J. and Aguiar , P. 2001 . The effects of belief in a just world and victim's innocence on secondary victimization, judgements of justice and deservingness . Social Justice Research , 14 : 327 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Crocker , J. , Voelkl , K. , Testa , M. and Major , B. 1991 . Social stigma: The affective consequences of attributional ambiguity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 : 218 – 228 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosby , F. 1982 . Relative deprivation and working women , New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Crosby , F. 1984 . The denial of personal discrimination . American Behvioural Scientist , 27 : 371 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalbert , C. , Fisch , U. and Montada , L. 1992 . Is inequality unjust? Evaluating women's career chances . Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée , 42 : 11 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dion , K. L. 1975 . Women's reactions to discrimination from members of the same or opposite sex . Journal of Research in Personality , 9 : 294 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dion , K. L. and Earn , B. M. 1975 . The phenomenology of being a target of prejudice . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 : 1327 – 1343 .
   Google Scholar
• Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2009). Financial services inquiry: Sex discrimination and gender pay gap report of the Equality and Human Rights Commission. http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/financial_services_inquiry_report.pdf (http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/financial_services_inquiry_report.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Feldman-Barrett , L. and Swim , J. K. 1998 . “ Appraisals of prejudice and discrimination ” . In Prejudice: The target's perspective , Edited by: Swim , J. K. and Stangor , C. 12 – 37 . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Foster , M. D. and Dion , K. L. 2003 . Dispositional hardiness and women's well-being relating to gender discrimination: The role of minimization . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 27 : 197 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster , M. D. and Matheson , K. 1995 . Double relative deprivation: Combining the personal and political . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 : 1167 – 1177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster , M. D. and Matheson , K. 1999 . Perceiving and responding to the personal/group discrimination discrepancy . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 25 : 1319 – 1329 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furnham , A. 2003 . Belief in a just world: Research progress over the past decade . Personality and Individual Differences , 34 : 795 – 817 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furnham , A. and Procter , E. 1989 . Belief in a just world: Review and critique of the individual difference literature . British Journal of Social Psychology , 28 : 365 – 384 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hafer , C. L. and Choma , B. L. 2009 . “ Belief in a just world, perceived fairness, and justification of the status quo ” . In Social and psychological bases of ideology and system justification , Edited by: Jost , J. T. , Kay , A. C. and Thorisdottir , H. 107 – 125 . Oxford , , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hafer , C. L. and Olson , J. M. 1989 . Beliefs in a just world and reactions to personal deprivation . Journal of Personality , 57 : 799 – 823 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hafer , C. L. and Olson , J. M. 1993 . Beliefs in a just world, discontent, and assertive actions by working women . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 19 : 30 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman , R. 1989 . Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct . Social Cognition , 7 : 113 – 136 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost , J. T. , Glaser , J. , Kruglanski , A. W. and Sulloway , F. J. 2003 . Political conservatism as motivated social cognition . Psychological Bulletin , 129 : 339 – 375 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost , J. T. and Hunyady , O. 2005 . Antecedents and consequences of system-justifying ideologies . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 14 : 260 – 265 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost , J. T. and Major , B. 2001 . The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relations , Cambridge , , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lerner , M. J. 1977 . The justice motive: Some hypotheses as to its origins and forms . Journal of Personality , 45 : 1 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner , M. J. 1980 . The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion , New York , NY : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lipkus , I. 1991 . The construction and preliminary validation of a global belief in a just world scale and the exploratory analysis of the multidimensional belief in a just world scale . Personality and Individual Differences , 12 : 1171 – 1178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipkus , I. M. and Siegler , I. C. 1993 . The belief in a just world and perceptions of discrimination . Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied , 127 : 465 – 474 .
   Google Scholar
• Major , B. 1994 . “ From social inequity to personal entitlement: The role of social comparisons, legitimacy appraisals, and group membership ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 26 , 293 – 348 . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Major , B. , Gramzow , R. H. , McCoy , S. K. , Levin , S. , Schmader , T. and Sidanius , J. 2002 . Perceiving personal discrimination: The role of group status and legitimizing ideology . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 : 269 – 282 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Major , B. and O'Brien , L. T. 2005 . The social psychology of stigma . Annual Review of Psychology , 56 : 393 – 421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Major , B. , Quinton , W. J. and McCoy , S. K. 2002 . “ Antecedents and consequences of attributions to discrimination: Theoretical and empirical advances ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 34 , 251 – 330 . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Major , B. , Quinton , W. J. and Schmader , T. 2003 . Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 39 : 220 – 231 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morera , M. R. , Dupont , E. , Leyens , J. and Désert , M. 2004 . When prototypicality makes ‘maybes’ look more certain: Another look at targets' vigilance towards prejudice cues . European Journal of Social Psychology , 34 : 437 – 457 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neville , H. A. , Lilly , R. L. , Duran , G. , Lee , R. M. and Browne , L. 2000 . Construction and initial validation of the color-blind racial attitude scale (CoBRAS) . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 47 : 59 – 70 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson , J. M. and Hafer , C. L. 1996 . “ Affect, motivation, and cognition in relative deprivation research ” . In Handbook of motivation and cognition: The interpersonal context , Edited by: Sorrentino , R. M. and Higgins , E. T. Vol. 3 , 85 – 117 . New York , NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Olson , J. M. and Hafer , C. L. 2001 . “ Tolerance of personal deprivation ” . In The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relations , Edited by: Jost , J. T. and Major , B. 157 – 175 . New York , NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Operario , D. and Fiske , S. T. 2001 . Ethnic identity moderates perceptions of prejudice: Judgements of personal versus group discrimination and subtle versus blatant bias . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 27 : 550 – 561 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe , E. A. and Richman , L. S. 2009 . Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review . Psychological Bulletin , 135 : 531 – 554 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Runciman , W. G. 1966 . Relative deprivation and social justice: A study of attitudes to social inequality in twentieth century England , Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt , M. T. , Branscombe , N. R. and Postmes , T. 2003 . Women's emotional responses to the pervasiveness of gender discrimination . European Journal of Social Psychology , 33 : 297 – 312 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skikta , L. J. , Mullen , E. , Griffin , T. , Hutchinson , S. and Chamberlin , B. 2002 . Dispositions, scripts, or motivated correction? Understanding ideological differences in explanations for social problems . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 470 – 487 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder , M. and Ickes , W. 1985 . “ Personality and social behaviour ” . In Handbook of social psychology , Edited by: Lindzey , G. and Aronson , E. 883 – 947 . New York , NY : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada, Minister of Industry (2008). Earnings and incomes of Canadians over the past quarter century, 2006 census (Catalogue no. 97-563-X2006001). http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census06/analysis/income/pdf/97-563-XIE2006001.pdf (http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census06/analysis/income/pdf/97-563-XIE2006001.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. G. and Fidell , L. S. 2001 . Using multivariate statistics , 4th , Boston , MA : Allyn and Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Tajfel , H. and Turner , J. 1979 . “ An integrative theory of intergroup conflict ” . In The social psychology of intergroup relations , Edited by: Austin , W. G. and Worchel , S. 33 – 48 . Monterey , CA : Brooks/Cole Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , D. M. , Wright , S. C. , Moghaddam , F. M. and Lalonde , R. N. 1990 . The personal/group discrimination discrepancy: Perceiving my group, but not myself, to be a target for discrimination . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 16 : 254 – 262 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , D. M. , Wright , S. C. and Porter , L. E. 1994 . “ Dimensions of perceived discrimination: The personal/group discrimination discrepancy ” . In The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. and Olson , J. M. Vol. 7 , 233 – 255 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , D. M. , Wright , S. C. and Ruggiero , K. M. 1990 . The personal/group discrimination discrepancy: Responses to experimentally induced personal and group discrimination . Journal of Social Psychology , 131 : 847 – 858 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentine , S. , Silver , L. and Twigg , N. 1999 . Locus of control, job satisfaction and job complexity: The role of perceived race discrimination . Psychological Reports , 84 : 1267 – 1273 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar