Ostracism drives group moralization and extreme group behavior

References

• Algoe, S. B. (2012). Find, remind, and bind: The functions of gratitude in everyday relationships. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 455–469. doi:10.1111/spco.2012.6.issue-6
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Young, S. G., Hugenberg, K., & Cook, E. (2010). Being “in” with the in-crowd: The effects of social exclusion and inclusion are enhanced by the perceived essentialism of ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 999–1009. doi:10.1177/0146167210376059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter-Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence, 3, 143–153. doi:10.1080/15534510802204868
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeWall, C. N. (2010). Forming a basis for acceptance: Excluded people form attitudes to agree with potential affiliates. Social Influence, 5, 245–260. doi:10.1080/15534511003783536
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Echterhoff, G., Higgins, E. T., & Levine, J. M. (2009). Shared reality experiencing commonality with others’ inner states about the world. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 496–521. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01161.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does exclusion hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302, 290–292. doi:10.1126/science.1089134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franz, B. (2015). Popjihadism: Why young European Muslims are joining the Islamic State. Mediterranean Quarterly, 26, 5–20. doi:10.1215/10474552-2914484
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., Leslie, L. M., Lun, J., Lim, B. C., … Yamaguchi, S. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332, 1100–1104. doi:10.1126/science.1197754
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez, Á., Morales, J. F., Hart, S., Vázquez, A., & Swann, W. B. (2011). Rejected and excluded forevermore, but even more devoted irrevocable: Ostracism intensifies loyalty to the group among identity-fused persons. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1574–1586. doi:10.1177/0146167211424580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
   Google Scholar
• Hardin, C., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 28–84). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harte, L. (2013). “One and indivisible:” The ideal of undifferentiated virtue as a motivation for violent terrorism in Jihadist and Jacobin circles. In J. Roshandel & N. Lean (Eds.), The moral psychology of terrorism: Implications for security (pp. 159–170). Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Hartgerink, C. H., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). The ordinal effects of ostracism: A meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. PLoS one, 10, e0127002. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T., & Pittman, T. S. (2008). Motives of the human animal: Comprehending, managing, and sharing inner states. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 361–385. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A. (2007). Uncertainty-identity theory. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 39, pp. 70–126). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A., Kruglanski, A., & Bos, K. (2013). Uncertainty and the roots of extremism. Journal of Social Issues, 69, 407–418. doi:10.1111/josi.2013.69.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J. (2008). Social identity theory and self-categorization theory: A historical review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 204–222. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00066.x
   Google Scholar
• Jamieson, J. P., Harkins, S. G., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Need threat can motivate performance after ostracism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 690–702. doi:10.1177/0146167209358882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost, J. T., Ledgerwood, A., & Hardin, C. D. (2008). Shared reality, system justification, and the relational basis of ideological beliefs. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 171–186. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00056.x
   Google Scholar
• Judd, C. M., McClelland, G. H., & Ryan, C. S. (2011). Data analysis: A model comparison approach. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Khosrokhavar, F., & Macey, D. (2005). Suicide bombers: Allah’s new martyrs. London, UK: Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Klausen, J., Campion, S., Needle, N., Nguyen, G., & Libretti, R. (2016). Toward a behavioral model of “homegrown” radicalization trajectories. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 39, 67–83. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2015.1099995
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Chen, X., Dechesne, M., Fishman, S., & Edward, O. (2009). Fully committed: Suicide bombers’ motivation and the quest for personal significance. Political Psychology, 30, 331–357. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00698.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., & Orehek, E. (2011). The role of the quest for personal significance in motivating terrorism. In J. P. Forgas, A. W. Kruglanski, & K. D. Williams (Eds.), The psychology of social conflict and aggression (pp. 153–166). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2005). Exclusion and nonconscious behavioral mimicry. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. Von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 279–296). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Kelly, K. M., Cottrell, C. A., & Schreindorfer, L. S. (2013). Construct validity of the need to belong scale: Mapping the nomological network. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95, 610–624. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.819511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., Koch, E. J., & Hechenbleikner, N. R. (2001). Emotional responses to interpersonal rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 145–166). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the “porcupine problem.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 42–55. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20, 415–433. doi:10.1080/09546550802073367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Brashears, M. E. (2006). Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades. American Sociological Review, 71, 353–375. doi:10.1177/000312240607100301
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, G. S., Skitka, L. J., & Wisneski, D. C. (2010). Moral and religious convictions and intentions to vote in the 2008 presidential election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 10, 307–320. doi:10.1111/asap.2010.10.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen, E., & Skitka, L. J. (2006). Exploring the psychological underpinnings of the moral mandate effect: Motivated reasoning, group differentiation, or anger? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 629–643. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998 -2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Nucci, L., & Turiel, E. (1993). God’s word, religious rules, and their relation to Christian and Jewish children’s concepts of morality. Child Development, 64, 1475–1491. doi:10.2307/1131547
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peugh, J., & Enders, C. (2004). Missing data in educational research: A review of reporting practices and suggestions for improvement. Review of Educational Research, 74, 525–556. doi:10.3102/00346543074004525
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickett, C. L., Gardner, W. L., & Knowles, M. (2004). Getting a cue: The need to belong and enhanced sensitivity to social cues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1095–1107. doi:10.1177/0146167203262085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reidenbach, R. E., & Robin, D. P. (1988). Some initial steps toward improving the measurement of ethical evaluations of marketing activities. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 871–879. doi:10.1007/BF00383050
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, S. J., & Ceranic, T. L. (2007). The effects of moral judgment and moral identity on moral behavior: An empirical examination of the moral individual. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1610–1624. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1610
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riva, P., Williams, K. D., Torstrick, A. M., & Montali, L. (2014). Orders to shoot (a camera): Effects of ostracism on obedience. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154, 208–216. doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.883354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaafsma, J., & Williams, K. D. (2012). Exclusion, intergroup hostility, and religious fundamentalism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 829–837. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skitka, L. J. (2010). The psychology of moral conviction. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 267–281. doi:10.1111/spco.2010.4.issue-4
   Google Scholar
• Skitka, L. J., Bauman, C. W., & Lytle, B. L. (2009). Limits on legitimacy: Moral and religious convictions as constraints on deference to authority. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 567–578. doi:10.1037/a0015998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skitka, L. J., Bauman, C. W., & Sargis, E. G. (2005). Moral conviction: Another contributor to attitude strength or something more? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 895–917. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.895
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skitka, L. J., & Houston, D. A. (2001). When due process is of no consequence: Moral mandates and presumed defendant guilt or innocence. Social Justice Research, 14, 305–326. doi:10.1023/A:1014372008257
   Google Scholar
• Skitka, L. J., & Mullen, E. (2002). Understanding judgments of fairness in a real-world political context: A test of the value protection model of justice reasoning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1419–1429. doi:10.1177/014616702236873
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swann, W. B., Gómez, Á., Huici, C., Morales, J. F., & Hixon, J. G. (2010). Identity fusion and self-sacrifice: Arousal as a catalyst of pro-group fighting, dying, and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 824–841. doi:10.1037/a0020014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swann, W. B., Gómez, Á., Seyle, D. C., Morales, J. F., & Huici, C. (2009). Identity fusion: The interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 995–1011. doi:10.1037/a0013668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–178. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0992
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thau, S., Derfler-Rozin, R., Pitesa, M., Mitchell, M. S., & Pillutla, M. M. (2015). Unethical for the sake of the group: Risk of social exclusion and pro-group unethical behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 98–113. doi:10.1037/a0036708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Bavel, J. J., Swencionis, J. K., O’Connor, R. C., & Cunningham, W. A. (2012). Motivated social memory: Belonging needs moderate the own-group bias in face recognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 707–713. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.01.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 58, 425–453. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 275–314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 748–762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D., & Jarvis, B. (2006). Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behavior Research Methods, 38, 174–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Exclusion by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 560–567. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.11.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar