ADVANCING NAVIGATION IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE: TEACHING AND INSTRUMENT-MAKING IN THE PORT OF ROCHEFORT

References

• 24 July 1998 . 24 July , Revised and expanded version of a paper originally delivered to the XVIIth International Scientific Instrument Symposium, Sorø, Denmark
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• 1979 . Revue de la Saintonge et de l'Aunis , : 416 For the building of the arsenal at Rochefort, its development, installations and present state, see Jacques Pinard, ‘Les bâtiments industriels de l'ancien Arsenal de Rochefort’,V 7593. Cf. Pierre Clément, Histoire de Colbert et de son administration, 2nd edition, 2 vols (Paris, 1874), I, -18
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• 1996 . La Marine française au XVIIIe siècle. Guerres, administration, exploration Paris For a general account of Colbert's naval reforms, see Michel Vergé-Franceschi, (chs 1 & 2. For his preoccupation with the importance of hydrographic teaching, see A. Didier-Neuville, ‘Les Etablissements scientifiques de l'ancien marine’, Revue Maritime et Coloniale, 56, 1878, 695ff (701); Michel Vergé-Franceschi, Marine et éducation sous l'Ancien Regime (Paris, 1991), 180ff. An increased emphasis was placed on the formation of naval officers in the years of peace that followed the Treaty of Nijmingen in 1678
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• 1681 . Ordonnance de Louis XIV. Roy de France…touchant la Marine 37 – 9 . Paris (titre VIII, articles i-viii
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• ‘Pour les rendre capable de figurer les Ports, Costes, Montagnes, Arbres, Tours & autres choses servant de marque aux Havres & Rades, & de faire des Cartes des Terres qu'ils découvriront.’
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• ‘Cartes , Routiers , Globes , Sphères and Boussoles , Arbalests . Astrolabes & les autres Instrumens & Livres nécessaire à leur Art.’
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• Valin , J. 1760 . Nouveau commentaire sur l'ordonnance de la marine…1681… R-2 vols (La Rochelle, I, 211
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• Ibid , I, 213
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• Ibid , I, 210
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• This is the figure most frequently mentioned in the correspondence between ministers and the Intendants of Rochefort.
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• 1940 . Les Jésuites et l'éducation de la société française: La Géographie des humanistes Paris Such a move was however considered in 1749. See Archives Nationales (hereafter AN) Marine B3, 419. For Jesuit teachers of hydrography in general, see François de Dainville, (434ff
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• 12 June 1683 . “ concerning the formation of ‘companies of gentlemen’ in the marine, cited in full in Vergé- Franceschi ” . In Marine et éducation 12 June , 129 – 67 . ‘Gentilhommes reconnus pour tels sans contestation’, circular letter from Colbert to the Intendants of the provinces 142–3. The companies of gardes formed in 1683 had been preceded by the ‘gardes de M. l'Amiral [le Comte de Vermandois]’, familiarly known as ‘the Vermandois’, founded in 1669, but replaced in 1671 by the ‘old gardes of the marine’. These in 1686 were finally amalgamated with the Nouveaux gardes of 1683. A detailed account of all three companies is given in Vergé-Franceschi, Marine et éducation
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• Nickname which remained attached to the Corps des Gardes de la Marine, even after they had no direct connection with the Comte de Vermandois, a natural son of Louis XIV, High Admiral of France. The rue Vermandois is now the rue Emile Combes. The old building of the school, number 8, still survives and has recently been converted into apartments.
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• Anthiaume , A. 1920 . Evolution et enseignement de la science nautique en France et principalement chez les Normandes 2 vols (Paris, 181. Cf. Didier-Neuville's remark that the hydrographic chairs and the Ecoles des Gardes de la Marine were ‘étroitement solidaire l'un à l'autre’ and that ‘les professeurs passèrent communement d'une école publique à une école spéciale’ in Didier-Neuville, ‘Les Etablissements’, 57, 1878, 333. Elsewhere he states that he could give several examples of ‘Professeurs Royal’ also teaching the gardes Marines, but refrains from citing any example other than Digard de Kerguëte at Rochefort
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• Service Historique de la Marine, Rochefort (hereafter SHMR), 1 E 148 f.83. At the same time the Minister agreed that separate prisons for the gardes, to keep them isolated from the cadets, were necessary
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• SHMR 1 E 148 f.158. His salary was 1200 livres with a 300 livres bonus.
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• Evolution , AN B2. 32 f.381 following Anthiaume,I, 186. Vergé-Franceschi, Marine et éducation, 189, who also summarizes (188) details of the courses offered. These conform relatively well with the provisions of the Ordonnance of 1681
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• Ewen , Pascal . ‘L'Ecole d'Hydrographie de la Marine de La Rochelle au XVIIIe siècle’ . Revue de la Saintonge et de l'Aunis , 33 citing J. Flouret, Cinq siècles d'enseignement secondaire à La Rochelle (1504–1972) (La Rochelle, 1973), 51
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• 1977 . Histoire de la ville et port de Rochefort 57 – 9 . Jean-Théodore Viaud & Elie-Jerôme Fleury2 vols (1845, reprinted I
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• de Dainville , F. 1957 . Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de leurs applications , XII : 323 – 38 .
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• Marine et éducation , Vergé-Franceschi208, citing from Georges Lacour-Gayet, La Marine militaire de la France sous la règne de Louis XV (Paris, 1902), 25
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• Marine et éducation 192 Vergé-Franceschi
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• Viaud and Fleury . I I – 3 .
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• 29 June 1766 . “ For Bézout see Vergé-Franceschi ” . In Marine et éducation 29 June , 265 – 8 . SHMR MS 1L1. 11 p. Praslin to Ruiz, 264
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• The dates given are the earliest known dates for each person and should be considered approximate. No distinction has been made between directors and assistants, hence various overlaps.
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• 1766 . ‘Règlement pour l'Ecole Royale d'hidrographie du Port de Rochefort’, SHMR MS 1L1. 11. ‘Ordonnances, Reglemens, decisions Brevets &c à 1767’
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• Ordonnance ‘A figurer les Ports, Côtes, Montagnes, Arbres, Tours et autres Objets servant de marquer aux havres et rades et à faire des Cartes’. Note that this stipulation is almost identical to one of the provisions of the of 1681
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• ‘Les livres, Cartes, et instruments données à l'Ecole par Sa Majesté, ne pourroit être prêter aux Ecoliers que pendant les leçons d'hidrographie, sous les yeux et du consentement du Professeur d'hidrographie qui en sera responsable.’
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• SHMR 1 E. 179 f.243r-44r.
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• ‘Neutre, isolé et uniquement destiné à l'instruction.’
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• 295 – 303 . SHMR 1 E 187 Doc. 61ff
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• La Marine française 364 – 5 . Compare with this the contrast between theory and reality offered by Vergé-Franceschi
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• ‘En avoit présenté quelques uns (pupils) dont l'Instruction est assez avancé, et particulièrement un nommé Dupont qui donne beaucoup d'esperances.’ ‘J'ai vu avec plaisir que le Professeur continue de donner ses soins à son Ecole, et je vous prie de lui marquer ma satisfaction.’ SHMR 1 E 212 f.250.
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• Bézout was also expected to carry out original research during his peregrinations. Announcing his visit to the Intendant Ruiz on 19 Jan. 1766, Choiseul noted that ‘Bézout pourra avoir occasion en même temps de faire diverses observations et expériences sur la mechanique et l'hydraulique et sur d'autres parties intéressante de la marine’, so Ruiz should accord him all facilities. SHMR, Dépêches du Ministre, 1E 179 f.177.
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• ‘Plus ces instruments seront grands et forts, plus ils seront utiles à enseigner, et même à pratiquer les choses sur le terrain’, Dainville, ‘L'Instruction des Gardes’, 335.
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• 1861–82 . Lettres. et mémoires de Colbert ‘Boutiques pour les serruriers et forgerons, menuissiers, peintres, sculpteurs, outils et instrumens de pilotes, maîtres-canoniers, ateliers et magasins de toneliers et généralement de tous les autres arts et mestiers nécessaires à la construction des vaisseaux’, Pierre Clement, ed.,10 vols (Paris, III, vi s.1, 290ff
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• Radoub de Compas, horloges et volets. , SHMR, ‘Bordereau general des depenses variable…1749’. MS 1 E. 146 f.223. Although I have translated compas as a (ship's) compass, it is not impossible that dividers are meant
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• 1937 . La Marine de guerre sous Louis XIV Paris René Memain (547
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• For such further biographical details as are known concerning Rochefort makers, see Appendix 4.
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