The role of wind and buoyancy forcing on mixed layer depths and productivity on the Chatham Rise from ocean glider and ship-based observations

References

• Behrens E, Bostock H. 2023. The response of the Subtropical Front to changes in the Southern Hemisphere westerly winds – evidence from models and observations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 128:e2022JC019139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrens E, Hogg AM, England MH, Bostock H. 2021. Seasonal and interannual variability of the subtropical front in the New Zealand region. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 126(2):e2020JC016412.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belkin IM. 1988. Main hydrological features of the central South Pacific. In: Vinogradov ME, Flint MV, editors. Ecosystems of the subantarctic zone of the Pacific Ocean. Moscow: Nauka; p. 21–28. Russian.
   Google Scholar
• Belkin IM, Gordon AL. 1996. Southern Ocean fronts from the Greenwich meridian to Tasmania. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 101(C2):3675–3696.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd P, LaRoche J, Gall M, Frew R, McKay RML. 1999. Role of iron, light, and silicate in controlling algal biomass in subantarctic waters SE of New Zealand. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 104(C6):13395–13408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd PW, McTainsh G, Sherlock V, Richardson K, Nichol S, Ellwood M, Frew R. 2004. Episodic enhancement of phytoplankton stocks in New Zealand subantarctic waters: contribution of atmospheric and oceanic iron supply. Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 18:GB1029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradford-Grieve JM, Boyd PW, Chang FH, Chiswell S, Hadfield M, Hall JA, James MR, Nodder SD, Shushkina EA. 1999. Pelagic ecosystem structure and functioning in the Subtropical Front region east of New Zealand in austral winter and spring 1993. Journal of Plankton Research. 21(3):405–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradford-Grieve JM, Chang FH, Gall M, Pickmere S, Richards F. 1997. Size-fractionated phytoplankton standing stocks and primary production during austral winter and spring 1993 in the Subtropical Convergence region near New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 31(2):201–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burls NJ, Reason CJC. 2006. Sea surface temperature fronts in the midlatitude South Atlantic revealed by using microwave satellite data. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 111(C8):C08001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatham Rock Phosphate. 2022. [Accessed 2022 October 12]. https://www.rockphosphate.co.nz/the-project.
   Google Scholar
• Chin TM, Vazquez-Cuervo J, Armstrong EM. 2017. A multi-scale high-resolution analysis of global sea surface temperature. Remote Sensing of Environment. 200:154–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM. 1994. Acoustic Doppler current profiler measurements over the Chatham Rise. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 28(2):167–178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM. 2001. Eddy energetics in the subtropical front over the Chatham Rise, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 35(1):1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM. 2011. Annual cycles and spring blooms in phytoplankton: don’t abandon Sverdrup completely. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 443:39–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM, Bradford-Grieve J, Hadfield MG, Kennan SC. 2013. Climatology of surface chlorophyll a, autumn-winter and spring blooms in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 118(2):1003–1018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM, Calil PHR, Boyd PW. 2015. Spring blooms and annual cycles of phytoplankton: a unified perspective. Journal of Plankton Research. 37(3):500–508.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM, Safi KA, Sander SG, Strzepek R, Ellwood MJ, Milne A, Boyd PW. 2019. Exploring mechanisms for spring bloom evolution: contrasting 2008 and 2012 blooms in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Journal of Plankton Research. 41(3):329–348.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiswell SM, Sutton PJ. 1998. A deep eddy in the antarctic intermediate water north of the Chatham Rise. Journal of Physical Oceanography. 28(3):535–540.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark MR, Nodder S, O’Callaghan J, Rowden AA, Cummings V, Hickey C. 2018. Effects of sedimentation from deep-sea mining: a benthic disturbance experiment off New Zealand. Deep-Sea Life. 12:18–19.
   Google Scholar
• Deacon GER. 1982. Physical and biological zonation in the Southern Ocean. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers. 29(1):1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boyer Montégut C, Madec G, Fischer AS, Lazar A, Iudicone D. 2004. Mixed layer depth over the global ocean: an examination of profile data and a profile-based climatology. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 109(C12):C12003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong S, Sprintall J, Gille ST, Talley L. 2008. Southern Ocean mixed-layer depth from Argo float profiles. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 113(C6):C06013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis JI, Clark MR, Rouse HL, Lamarche G. 2017. Environmental management frameworks for offshore mining: the New Zealand approach. Marine Policy. 84:178–192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fauchereau N, Tagliabue A, Bopp L, Monteiro PMS. 2011. The response of phytoplankton biomass to transient mixing events in the Southern Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters. 38:L17601.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisheries New Zealand. 2022. Fisheries assessment plenary, May 2022: stock assessments and stock status. Wellington: Compiled by the Fisheries Science Team. Fisheries New Zealand.
   Google Scholar
• Graham RM, Boer D,MA. 2013. The dynamical subtropical front. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 118(10):5676–5685.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadfield MG, Rickard GJ, Uddstrom MJ. 2007. A hydrodynamic model of Chatham Rise, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 41(2):239–264.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath RA. 1985. A review of the physical oceanography of the seas around New Zealand – 1982. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 19(1):79–124.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Seabed Authority. 2020. [Accessed 2022 October 12]. https://www.isa.org.jm/index.php/our-work/protection-marine-environment.
   Google Scholar
• Kobayashi S, Ota Y, Harada Y, Ebita A, Moriya M, Onoda H, Onogi K, Kamahori H, Kobayashi C, Endo H, Miyaoka K. 2015. The JRA-55 reanalysis: general specifications and basic characteristics. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. Ser. II. 93(1):5–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostianoy AG, Ginzburg AI, Frankignoulle M, Delille B. 2004. Fronts in the Southern Indian Ocean as inferred from satellite sea surface temperature data. Journal of Marine Systems. 45(1–2):55–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marra JF, Chamberlin WS, Knudson CA, Rhea WJ, Ho C. 2023. Parameters for the depth of the ocean’s productive layers. Frontiers in Marine Science. 10:536.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClatchie S, Millar RB, Webster F, Lester PJ, Hurst R, Bagley N. 1997. Demersal fish community diversity off New Zealand: is it related to depth, latitude and regional surface phytoplankton? Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 44(4):647–667.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClatchie S, Pinkerton M, Livingston NE. 2005. Relating the distribution of a semi-demersal fish, Macruronus novaezelandiae, to their pelagic food supply. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 52(8):1489–1501.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy RJ, Pinkerton MH, Richardson KM, Bradford-Grieve JM, Boyd PW. 2001. Phytoplankton distributions around New Zealand derived from SeaWiFS remotely-sensed ocean colour data. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 35(2):343–362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nodder SD, Boyd PW, Chiswell SM, Pinkerton MH, Bradford-Grieve JM, Grieg MJN. 2005. Temporal coupling between surface and deep ocean biogeochemical processes in contrasting subtropical and subantarctic water masses, southwest Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research. 110:C12017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nodder SD, Northcote LC. 2001. Episodic particulate fluxes at southern temperate mid-latitudes (42–45°S) in the Subtropical Front region, east of New Zealand. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 48(3):833–864.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross T, Craig SE, Comeau A, Davis R, Dever M, Beck M. 2017. Blooms and subsurface phytoplankton layers on the Scotian Shelf: insights from profiling gliders. Journal of Marine Systems. 172:118–127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safi KA, Gutiérrez-Rodríguez A, Hall JA, Pinkerton MA. 2023. Phytoplankton dynamics, growth and microzooplankton grazing across the subtropical frontal zone, east of New Zealand. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 208:105271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaeffer A, Roughan M, Wood JE. 2014. Observed bottom boundary layer transport and uplift on the continental shelf adjacent to a western boundary current. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 119(8):4922–4939.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schofield O, Ducklow H, Bernard K, Doney S, Patterson-Fraser D, Gorman K, Martinson D, Meredith M, Saba G, Stammerjohn S, Steinberg D. 2013. Penguin biogeography along the West Antarctic Peninsula: testing the canyon hypothesis with Palmer LTER observations. Oceanography. 26(3):204–206.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schofield O, Kohut J, Aragon D, Creed L, Graver J, Haldeman C, Kerfoot J, Roarty H, Jones C, Webb D, Glenn S. 2007. Slocum gliders: robust and ready. Journal of Field Robotics. 24(6):473–485.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton P. 2001. Detailed structure of the subtropical front over Chatham Rise, east of New Zealand. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 106(C12):31045–31056.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sverdrup H. 1953. On conditions of the vernal blooming of phytoplankton. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 18(3):287–295.
   Google Scholar
• Swart S, Thomalla SJ, Monteiro PM. 2015. The seasonal cycle of mixed layer dynamics and phytoplankton biomass in the Sub-Antarctic Zone: a high-resolution glider experiment. Journal of Marine Systems. 147:103–115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor AH, Harbour DS, Harris RP, Burkill PH, Edwards ES. 1993. Seasonal succession in the pelagic ecosystem of the North Atlantic and the utilization of nitrogen. Journal of Plankton Research. 15(8):875–891.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor JR, Ferrari R. 2011. Ocean fronts trigger high latitude phytoplankton blooms. Geophysical Research Letters. 38(23):L23601.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilburg CE, Hurlburt HE, O'Brien JJ, Shriver JF. 2002. Remote topographic forcing of a baroclinic western boundary current: an explanation for the Southland Current and the pathway of the Subtropical Front east of New Zealand. Journal of Physical Oceanography. 32(11):3216–3232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todd RE. 2017. High-frequency internal waves and thick bottom mixed layers observed by gliders in the Gulf Stream. Geophysical Research Letters. 44(12):6316–6325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uddstrom MJ, Oien NA. 1999. On the use of high-resolution satellite data to describe the spatial and temporal variability of sea surface temperatures in the New Zealand region. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 104(C9):20729–20751.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zentara SJ, Kamykowski D. 1981. Geographic variation in the relationship between silicic acid and nitrate in the South Pacific Ocean. Deep Sea Research, Part A. 28:455–465.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou K, Nodder SD, Dai M, Hall JA. 2012. Insignificant enhancement of export flux in the highly productive Subtropical Front, east of New Zealand: a high-resolution study of particle export fluxes based on 234 Th:238 U disequilibria. Biogeosciences. 9(3):973–992.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar