References
- Abedi, V., O. Olulana, V. Avula, D. Chaudhary, A. Khan, S. Shahjouei, J. Li et al. 2021. Racial, economic, and health inequality and COVID-19 infection in the United States, Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 8: 732–742. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00833-4
- Abrams, E. M. and S. J. Szefler. 2020. COVID-19 and the impact of social determinants of health, The Lancet Respiratory Medicine 8(7): 659–661. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30234–4
- Alberti, P. M., P. M. Lantz, and C. H. Wilkins. 2020. Equitable pandemic preparedness and rapid response: Lessons from COVID-19 for pandemic health equity, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 45(6): 921–935. doi:https://doi.org/10.1215/03616878-8641469
- Alfani, G. and M. Bonetti. 2019. A survival analysis of the last great European plagues: The case of Nonantola (Northern Italy) in 1630, Population Studies 73(1): 101–118. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2018.1457794
- Argoty-Pantoja, A. D., K. Robles-Rivera, B. Rivera-Paredez, and J. Salmeron. 2021. COVID-19 fatality in Mexico’s indigenous populations, Public Health 193: 69–75. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2021.01.023
- Arrazola, J., M. Masiello, S. Joshi et al. 2020. COVID-19 mortality among American Indian and Alaska Native persons—14 states, January–June 2020, MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69: 1853–1856. doi:https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6949a3
- Baena-Diez, J. M., M. Barroso, S. I. Cordeiro-Coelho, J. L. Diaz, and M. Grau. 2020. Impact of COVID-19 outbreak by income: Hitting hardest the most deprived, Journal of Public Health 42(4): 698–703. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdaa136
- Bambra, C., M. Gibson, A. Sowden, K. Wright, M. Whitehead, and M. Petticrew. 2010. Tackling the wider social determinants of health and health inequalities: Evidence from systematic reviews, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 64(4): 284–291. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2008.082743
- Baqui, P., I. Bica, V. Marra, A. Ercole, and M. van der Schaar. 2020. Ethnic and regional variations in hospital mortality from COVID-19 in Brazil: A cross-sectional observational study, The Lancet Global Health 8(8): e1018–e1026. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30285-0
- Barrett, R. 2006. Dark winter and the spring of 1972: Deflecting the social lessons of smallpox, Medical Anthropology 25(2): 171–191. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740600686633
- Barry, J. M. 2005. The Great Influenza: The Story of the Deadliest Pandemic in History. London: Penguin Books.
- Batty, G. D., I. J. Deary, M. Luciano, D. M. Altschul, M. Kivimäki, and C. R. Gale. 2020. Psychosocial factors and hospitalisations for COVID-19: Prospective cohort study based on a community sample, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 89: 569–578. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.06.021
- Baumer, T., E. Phillips, A. Dhadda, and T. Szakmany. 2020. Epidemiology of the first wave of COVID-19 ICU admissions in South Wales – The interplay between ethnicity and deprivation, Frontiers in Medicine 7: 569714. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.569714
- Beach, B., K. Clay, and M. H. Saavedra. 2020. The 1918 influenza pandemic and its lessons for COVID-19. NBER Working Paper Series, Issue. National Bureau of Economic Research.
- Beiner, G. 2006. Out in the cold and back: New-found interest in the great flu, Cultural and Social History 3(4): 496–505. doi:https://doi.org/10.1191/1478003806cs070ra
- Bengtsson, T., M. Dribe, and B. Eriksson. 2018. Social class and excess mortality in Sweden during the 1918 influenza pandemic, American Journal of Epidemiology 187(12): 2568–2576. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy151
- Bertocchi, G. and A. Dimico. 2020. COVID-19, race and redlining. QUCEH Working Paper Series, Issue. Queen’s University Belfast, Queen’s University Centre for Economic History (QUCEH).
- Blake, K. D., R. J. Blendon, and K. Viswanath. 2010. Employment and compliance with pandemic influenza mitigation recommendations, Emerging Infectious Diseases 16(2): 212–218. doi:https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1602.090638
- Blumenshine, P., A. Reingold, S. Egerter, R. Mockenhaupt, P. Braveman, and J. Marks. 2008. Pandemic influenza planning in the United States from a health disparities perspective, Emerging Infectious Diseases 14(5): 709–715. doi:https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1405.071301
- Brandén, M., S. Aradhya, M. Kolk, J. Härkönen, S. Drefahl, B. Malmberg, M. Rostila et al. 2020. Residential context and COVID-19 mortality among adults aged 70 years and older in Stockholm: A population-based, observational study using individual-level data, The Lancet Healthy Longevity 1(2): e80–e88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-7568(20)30016-7
- Burstrom, B. and W. Tao. 2020. Social determinants of health and inequalities in COVID-19, European Journal of Public Health 30(4): 617–618. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa095
- Calderón-Larrañaga, A., D. L. Vetrano, D. Rizzuto, T. Bellander, L. Fratiglioni, and S. Dekhtyar. 2020. High excess mortality in areas with young and socially vulnerable populations during the COVID-19 outbreak in Stockholm region, Sweden, BMJ Global Health 5: e003595. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003595
- Castrodale, L., J. McLaughlin, S. Imholte, K. Komatsu, E. Wells, M. Landen, D. Selvage et al. 2009. Deaths related to 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) among American Indian/Alaska Natives – 12 states, 2009, MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58(48): 1341–1344. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5848a1.htm
- Chandra, S. 2013. Mortality from the influenza pandemic of 1918–19 in Indonesia, Population Studies 67(2): 185–193. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00324728.2012.754486
- Chandra, S., J. Chistensen, S.-E. Mamelund, and N. Paneth. 2018. Short-term birth sequelae of the 1918–20 influenza pandemic in the United States: State-level analysis, American Journal of Epidemiology 187(12): 2585–2595. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy153
- Cohen, S., C. M. Alper, W. J. Doyle, N. Adler, J. J. Treanor, R. B. Turner et al. 2008. Objective and subjective socioeconomic status and susceptibility to the common cold, Health Psychology 27: 268–274. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.268
- Cohen, S., W. J. Doyle, R. B. Turner, C. M. Alper, and D. P. Skoner. 2004. Childhood socioeconomic status and host resistance to infectious illness in adulthood, Psychosomatic Medicine 66(4): 553–558. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000126200.05189.d3
- Crosby, A. 1976. Epidemic and Peace, 1918. London: Greenwood Press.
- Crosby, A. W. 2003. America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Crouse, Q. S., and K. Supriya. 2014. Health inequalities and infectious disease epidemics: A challenge for global health security, Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 12(5): 263–273. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/bsp.2014.0032
- Dahal, S., K. Mizumoto, R. Rothenberg, and G. Chowell. 2020. Investigating spatial variability in COVID-19 pandemic severity across 19 geographic areas, Spain, 2020, medRxiv. doi:https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.14.20065524
- de Lusignan, S., J. Dorward, A. Correa, N. Jones, O. Akinyemi, G. Amirthalingam, N. Andrews et al. 2020. Association of age, gender, deprivation, urbanicity, ethnicity, and smoking with a positive test for COVID-19 in an English primary care surveillance network: Cross sectional study of the first 500 cases, SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3578782
- Dimka, J., and S.-E. Mamelund. 2020. 1918 influenza outcomes among institutionalized Norwegian populations: Implications for disability-inclusive pandemic preparedness, Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research 22(1): 175–186. doi:https://doi.org/10.16993/sjdr.725
- Drefahl, S., M. Wallace, E. Mussino, S. Aradhya, M. Kolk, M. Brandén, B. Malmberg et al. 2020. A population-based cohort study of socio-demographic risk factors for COVID-19 deaths in Sweden, Nature Communications 11(1): 5097. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18926-3
- Euromomo. 2021. Available: https://www.euromomo.eu/.
- Figueroa, J. F., R. K. Wadhera, W. T. Mehtsun, K. Riley, J. Phelan, and A. K. Jha. 2021. Association of race, ethnicity, and community-level factors with COVID-19 cases and deaths across U.S. counties, Healthcare 9(1): 100495. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hjdsi.2020.100495
- Fiscella, K., P. Franks, M. R. Gold, and C. M. Clancy. 2000. Inequality in quality, JAMA 283(19): 2579–2584. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.19.2579
- Flint, S. M., J. S. Davis, J.-Y. Su, E. P. Oliver-Landry, B. A. Rogers, A. Goldstein, J. H. Thomas et al. 2010. Disproportionate impact of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza on indigenous people in the top end of Australia’s northern territory, Medical Journal of Australia 192(10): 617–622. doi:https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2010.tb03654.x
- Folkehelseinstituttet [Norwegian National Institute of Public Health]. 2018. Pandemi- og epidemikomitéen [The Pandemic and Epidemic Committee]. Available: https://www.fhi.no/sv/influensa/influensapandemier/pandemi--og-epidemikomiteen/.
- Folkehelseinstituttet [Norwegian National Institute of Public Health]. 2020a. COVID-19-epidemien: Risikovurderinger [COVID-19 epidemic: Risk assessments]. Available: https://www.fhi.no/publ/2020/covid-19-epidemien-risikovurdering/.
- Folkehelseinstituttet [Norwegian National Institute of Public Health]. 2020b. Kunnskap, situasjon, prognose, risiko og respons i Norge etter uke 23 [Knowledge, situation, prognosis, risk, and response in Norway after week 23]. Available: https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/c9e459cd7cc24991810a0d28d7803bd0/vedlegg/notat-om-risiko-og-respons-2020–06–11.pdf.
- Folkehelseinstituttet [Norwegian National Institute of Public Health]. 2020c. Risikovurdering av og respons på 2019-nCoV-infeksjon i Norge [Risk assessment of and response to 2019-nCoV infection in Norway]. Available: https://www.fhi.no/contentassets/c9e459cd7cc24991810a0d28d7803bd0/vedlegg/risikovurdering-av-og-respons-pa-2019-ncov-infeksjon-i-norge-28.01.2020.pdf.
- Grantz, K. H., D. A. T. Cummings, G. E. Glass, M. S. Rane, H. Salje, and S. E. Schachterle. 2016. Disparities in influenza mortality and transmission related to sociodemographic factors within Chicago in the pandemic of 1918, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(48): 13839–13844. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1612838113
- Great Britain Ministry of Health. 1920. Report on the 1918–19 Pandemic of Influenza. Reports on public health and medical subjects, No. 4. GBMH, London.
- Groom, A. V., T. W. Hennessy, R. J. Singleton, J. C. Butler, S. Holve, and J. E. Cheek. 2014. Pneumonia and influenza mortality among American Indian and Alaska Native people, 1990–2009, American Journal of Public Health 104(Suppl 3): S460–S469. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301740
- Groom, A. V., C. Jim, M. LaRoque, C. Mason, J. McLaughlin, L. Neel, T. Powell et al. 2009. Pandemic influenza preparedness and vulnerable populations in tribal communities, American Journal of Public Health 99(S2): S271–S278. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.157453
- Gu, T., J. A. Mack, M. Salvatore, S. Prabhu Sankar, T. S. Valley, K. Singh, B. K. Nallamothu et al. 2020. Characteristics associated with racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 outcomes in an academic health care system, JAMA Network Open 3(10): e2025197. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.25197
- Guarner, J. 2020. Three emerging coronaviruses in two decades, American Journal of Clinical Pathology 153(4): 420–421. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/aqaa029
- Han, Y., V. O. K. Li, J. C. K. Lam, P. Guo, R. Bai, and W. W. T. Fok. 2020. Who is more susceptible to Covid-19 infection and mortality in the States?, medRxiv. doi:https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.01.20087403
- Hatcher, S., C. Agnew-Brune, M. Anderson et al. 2020. COVID-19 among American Indian and Alaska native persons—23 states, January 31–July 3, 2020, MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69: 1166–1169. doi:https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6934e1
- Hawkins, D. 2020. Differential occupational risk for COVID-19 and other infection exposure according to race and ethnicity, American Journal of Industrial Medicine 63(9): 817–820. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.23145
- Hendryx, M. and J. Luo. 2020. COVID-19 prevalence and mortality rates in association with black race and segregation in the United States April 1 to April 15, 2020, SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3582857
- Herda, P. 2000. Disease and the colonial narrative. The 1918 influenza pandemic in Western Polynesia, New Zealand Journal of History 34(1): 133–144. http://www.nzjh.auckland.ac.nz/document/document/?wid=416
- Holmberg, M. 2016. The ghost of pandemics past: Revisiting two centuries of influenza in Sweden, Medical Humanities 43: 141–147. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2016-011023
- Horwood, P. F., A. Tarantola, C. Goarant, M. Matsui, E. Klement, M. Umezaki, S. Navarro et al. 2019. Health challenges of the Pacific region: Insights from history, geography, social determinants, genetics, and the microbiome, Frontiers in Immunology 10: 2184. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02184
- Howard, D. H., T. Sentell, and J. A. Gazmararian. 2006. Impact of health literacy on socioeconomic and racial differences in health in an elderly population, Journal of General Internal Medicine 21(8): 857–861. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00530.x
- Indseth, T., I. H. Elgersma, B. H. Strand, K. Telle, A. S. Labberton, T. Arnesen, K. M. Nygård et al. 2021. Covid-19 blant personer født utenfor Norge, justert for yrke, trangboddhet, medisinsk risikogruppe, utdanning og inntekt [Covid-19 among people born outside Norway, adjusted for occupation, overcrowding, medical risk group, education, and income]. Folkehelseinstituttet [Norwegian National Institute of Public Health]. Available: https://www.fhi.no/publ/2021/covid-19-blant-personer-fodt-utenfor-norge-justert-for-yrke-trangboddhet-me/.
- Indseth, T., A. Godøy, M. Kjøllesdal, T. Arnesen, C. Jacobsen, M. Grøsland, and K. Telle. 2020. Covid-19 etter fødeland: Personer testet, bekreftet smittet og relaterte innleggelser og dødsfall [Covid-19 by country of birth: People tested, confirmed infected and related, hospitalizations and deaths]. Folkehelseinstituttet [Norwegian National Institute of Public Health]. Available: https://www.fhi.no/globalassets/dokumenterfiler/rapporter/2020/covid-19-etter-fodeland-personer-testet-bekreftet-smittet-og-relaterte-innleggelser-og-dodsfall-rapport-2020-v2.pdf.
- Iuliano, A. D., K. M. Roguski, H. H. Chang, D. J. Muscatello, R. Palekar, S. Tempia, C. Cohen et al. 2017. Estimates of global seasonal influenza-associated respiratory mortality: A modelling study, The Lancet 391(10127): 1285–1300. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)33293-2
- Johnson, N. 2006. Britain and the 1918–19 Influenza Pandemic. A Dark Epilogue. Routledge. doi:https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203018163
- Johnson, N. P. and J. Mueller. 2002. Updating the accounts: Global mortality of the 1918–1920 ‘Spanish’ influenza pandemic, Bulletin of the History of Medicine 76(1): 105–115. Available: http://muse.jhu.edu/article/4826. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/bhm.2002.0022
- Kayman, H. and A. Ablorh-Odjidja. 2006. Revisiting public health preparedness, Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 12(4): 373–380. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/00124784-200607000-00011
- Kelly H., G. N. Mercer, and A. C. Cheng. 2009. Quantifying the risk of pandemic influenza in pregnancy and indigenous people in Australia in 2009, Euro Surveillance 14(50): 19441. doi:https://doi.org/10.2807/ese.14.50.19441-en
- Kim, S. J. and W. Bostwick. 2020. Social vulnerability and racial inequality in COVID-19 deaths in Chicago, Health Education & Behavior 47(4): 509–513. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198120929677
- Klüwer, B., K. Rydland, I. Laake, M. Todd, L. Juvet, and S.-E. Mamelund. Under review. Socioeconomic patterns of the influenza risk group in Norway.
- La Ruche, G., A. Tarantola, P. Barboza, L. Vaillant, J. Gueguen, and M. Gastellu-Etchegorry. 2009. The 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza and indigenous populations of the Americas and the Pacific, Eurosurveillance 14(42): 19366. doi:https://doi.org/10.2807/ese.14.42.19366-en
- Lauvrak, V. and L. Juvet. 2020. Social and Economic Vulnerable Groups During the COVID-19 Pandemic, Rapid Review 2020. Norwegian Institute of Public Health. https://www.fhi.no/globalassets/dokumenterfiler/rapporter/2020/social-and-economic-vulnerable-groups-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-report-2020-v3.pdf
- Lee, C., W. A. Rogers, and A. Braunack-Mayer. 2008. Social justice and pandemic influenza planning: The role of communication strategies, Public Health Ethics 1(3): 223–234. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/phe/phn031
- Levin, A. T., W. P. Hanage, N. Owusu-Boaitey, K. B. Cochran, S. P. Walsh, and G. Meyerowitz-Katz. 2020. Assessing the age specificity of infection fatality rates for COVID-19: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and public policy implications, European Journal of Epidemiology 35: 1123–1138. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-020-00698-1
- Liu, S. H., B. Liu, Y. Li, and A. Norbury. 2020. Time courses of COVID-19 infection and local variation in socioeconomic and health disparities in England, medRxiv. doi:https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.29.20116921
- Mackey, K., C. K. Ayers, K. K. Kondo, S. Saha, S. M. Advani, S. Young, H. Spencer et al. 2021. Racial and ethnic disparities in COVID-19-related infections, hospitalizations, and deaths: A systematic review, Annals of Internal Medicine 174(3): 362–373. doi:https://doi.org/10.7326/M20-6306
- Mamelund, S.-E. 2003. Spanish influenza mortality of ethnic minorities in Norway 1918–1919, European Journal of Population/ Revue Européenne de Démographie 19(1): 83–102. doi:https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022179025843
- Mamelund, S.-E. 2004. Can the Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918 explain the baby boom of 1920 in neutral Norway?, Population 59(2): 229–260. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/3654904
- Mamelund, S.-E. 2006. A socially neutral disease? Individual social class, household wealth and mortality from Spanish influenza in two socially contrasting parishes in Kristiania 1918–19, Social Science & Medicine 62(4): 923–940. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.06.051
- Mamelund, S.-E. 2008. Influenza, historical, in International Encyclopedia of Public Health (Vol. 3). Academic Press, pp. 597–609. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012373960-5.00372-5
- Mamelund, S.-E. 2011. Geography may explain adult mortality from the 1918–20 influenza pandemic, Epidemics 3(1): 46–60. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epidem.2011.02.001
- Mamelund, S. E. 2017. Social inequality – A forgotten factor in pandemic influenza preparedness, Tidsskrift for Den Norske Legeforening 12–13: 911–913. doi:https://doi.org/10.4045/tidsskr.17.0273
- Mamelund, S. E. 2018. 1918 pandemic morbidity: The first wave hits the poor, the second wave hits the rich, Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 12(3): 307–313. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.12541
- Mamelund, S.-E. and J. Dimka. 2019. Tuberculosis as a risk factor for 1918 influenza pandemic outcomes, Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 4(2): 74. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4020074
- Mamelund, S.-E., J. Dimka, and N. Zou Bakkeli. 2021. Social disparities in adopting non-pharmaceutical interventions during COVID-19, Journal of Developing Societies: 0169796X2199685, doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0169796X21996858
- Mamelund, S. E., B. Haneberg, and S. Mjaaland. 2016. A missed summer wave of the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic: Evidence from household surveys in the United States and Norway, Open Forum Infectious Diseases 3(1): ofw040. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofw040
- Mamelund, S. E., L. Sattenspiel, and J. Dimka. 2013. Influenza-associated mortality during the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic in Alaska and Labrador: A comparison, Social Science History 37(2): 177–229. doi:https://doi.org/10.1215/01455532-2074420
- Mamelund, S.-E., C. Shelley-Egan, and O. Rogeberg. 2020. The association between socioeconomic status and pandemic influenza: Systematic review and meta-analysis, medRxiv. doi:https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.12.09.20246496
- Marmot, M. 2005. Social determinants of health inequalities, The Lancet 365(9464): 1099–1104. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6
- Marmot, M. G. and R. Bell. 2009. Action on health disparities in the United States, JAMA 301(11): 1169–1171. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.363
- Martins-Filho, P. R., A. A. de Souza Araujo, L. J. Quintans-Junior, and V. S. Santos. 2020. COVID-19 fatality rates related to social inequality in northeast Brazil: A neighbourhood-level analysis, Journal of Travel Medicine 27(7). doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa128
- Matthews, D. 2020. German humanities scholars enlisted to end coronavirus lockdown. Available: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/german-humanities-scholars-enlisted-end-coronavirus-lockdown.
- Maurer, J. 2016. Inspecting the mechanism, Medical Decision Making 36(7): 887–899. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989x15608379
- Meyerowitz-Katz, G. and L. Merone. 2020. A systematic review and meta-analysis of published research data on COVID-19 infection-fatality rates, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 101: 138–148. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.1464
- Miller, H. 2020. Navajo nation reports more coronavirus cases per capital than all but 2 U.S. States. Available: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/navajo-nation-coronavirus-per-capita_n_5e94b532c5b6a50d4ae6d7e7.
- Murray, C. J., A. D. Lopez, B. Chin, D. Feehan, and K. H. Hill. 2007. Estimation of potential global pandemic influenza mortality on the basis of vital registry data from the 1918–20 pandemic: A quantitative analysis, The Lancet 368(9554): 2211–2218. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69895-4
- Mutambudzi, M., C. Niedwiedz, E. B. Macdonald, A. Leyland, F. Mair, J. Anderson, C. Celis-Morales et al. 2020. Occupation and risk of severe COVID-19: Prospective cohort study of 120 075 UK biobank participants, Occupational and Environmental Medicine 78: 307–314. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2020-106731
- Nagle, R. 2020. Native Americans being left out of US coronavirus data and labelled as ‘other’. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/apr/24/us-native-americans-left-out-coronavirus-data.
- Økland, H. and S.-E. Mamelund. 2019. Race and 1918 influenza pandemic in the United States: A review of the literature, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16(14): 2487. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142487
- Okoi, O. and T. Bwawa. 2020. How health inequality affect responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa, World Development 135: 105067. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105067
- Olson, D. R., L. Simonsen, P. J. Edelson, and S. S. Morse. 2005. Epidemiological evidence of an early wave of the 1918 influenza pandemic in New York City, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(31): 11059–11063. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0408290102
- Oxford, J. S. and D. Gill. 2018. Unanswered questions about the 1918 influenza pandemic: Origin, pathology, and the virus itself, The Lancet Infectious Diseases 18(11): e348–e354. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30359-1
- Oxford, J. S., A. Sefton, R. Jackson, N. P. A. S. Johnson, and R. S. Daniels. 1999. Who’s that lady?, Nature Medicine 5(12): 1351–1352. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/70913
- Patel, A. P., M. D. Paranjpe, N. P. Kathiresan, M. A. Rivas, and A. V. Khera. 2020. Race, socioeconomic deprivation, and hospitalization for COVID-19 in English participants of a national biobank, International Journal for Equity in Health 19(1): 114. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-01227-y
- Phelan, J. C., B. G. Link, and P. Tehranifar. 2010. Social conditions as fundamental causes of health inequalities: Theory, evidence, and policy implications, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51(1_suppl): S28–S40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383498
- Phillips, H. 1984. Black October: The impact of the Spanish influenza epidemic of 1918 on South Africa. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
- Phillips, H. 2014. The recent wave of ‘Spanish’ flu historiography, Social History of Medicine 27: 789–808. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/shm/hku066
- Piketty, T. 2014. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
- Plümper, T. and E. Neumayer. 2020. The pandemic predominantly hits poor neighbourhoods? SARS-CoV-2 infections and Covid-19 fatalities in German districts, European Journal of Public Health 30(6): 1176–1180. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa168
- Price-Haywood, E. G., J. Burton, D. Fort, and L. Seoane. 2020. Hospitalization and mortality among black patients and white patients with Covid-19, New England Journal of Medicine 382(26): 2534–2543. doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa2011686
- Public Health England. 2020. Disparities in the Risk and Outcomes of COVID-19. Available: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-review-of-disparities-in-risks-and-outcomes.
- Raphael, D. 2006. Social determinants of health: Present status, unanswered questions, and future directions, International Journal of Health Services 36(4): 651–677. doi:https://doi.org/10.2190/3MW4-1EK3-DGRQ-2CRF
- Rast, J., Y. C. Martinez, and L. H. Williams. 2020. Milwaukee’s Coronavirus Racial Divide: A Report on the Early Stages of COVID-19 Spread in Milwaukee County. Center for Economic Development Publications. https://dc.uwm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=ced_pubs
- Rice, G. 1988. Black November: The 1918 Influenza Epidemic in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin and Historical Branch, New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs.
- Rice, G. W. 2018. Influenza in New Zealand before 1918: A preliminary report, American Journal of Epidemiology 187(12): 2524–2529. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy180
- Rosenberg, C. E. 1992. Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Rostila, M., A. Cederström, M. Wallace, M. Brandén, B. Malmberg, and G. Andersson. 2020. Disparities in Covid-19 Deaths by Country of Birth in Stockholm, Sweden: A Total Population Based Cohort Study. Stockholm Research Reports in Demography.
- Ruggles, S. 2021. The revival of quantification: Reflections on old new histories, Social Science History 45: 1–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/ssh.2020.44
- Ruggles, S. and D. L. Magnuson. 2020. The history of quantification in history: The JIH as a case study, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 3(Winter 2020): 363–381. doi:https://doi.org/10.1162/jinh_a_01446
- Sample, I. 2020. Who’s who on secret scientific group advising UK government?. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/24/coronavirus-whos-who-on-secret-scientific-group-advising-uk-government-sage.
- Schmidt, H., P. Pathak, T. Sönmez, and M. U. Ünver. 2020. Covid-19: How to prioritize worse-off populations in allocating safe and effective vaccines, BMJ 371: m3795. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3795
- Semenza, J. C. 2010. Strategies to intervene on social determinants of infectious diseases, Eurosurveillance 15(27): 19611. doi:https://doi.org/10.2807/ese.15.27.19611-en
- Shortridge, K. F. 1999. The 1918 ‘Spanish’ flu: Pearls from swine?, Nature Medicine 5(4): 384–385. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/7383
- Sohrabi, C., Z. Alsafi, N. O’Neill, M. Khan, A. Kerwan, A. Al-Jabir, C. Iosifidis et al. 2020. World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19), International Journal of Surgery 76: 71–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034
- Steptoe, A., A. Shamaei-Tousi, Å Gylfe, B. Henderson, S. Bergström, and M. Marmot. 2007. Socioeconomic status, pathogen burden and cardiovascular disease risk, Heart 93(12): 1567–1570. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2006.113993
- Steyn, N., R. Binny, K. Hannah, S. Hendy, A. James, T. Kukutai, A. Lustig et al. 2020. Estimated inequities in COVID-19 infection fatality rates by ethnicity for Aotearoa New Zealand, New Zealand Medical Journal 133(1521): 28–39. https://assets-global.website-files.com/5e332a62c703f653182faf47/5f500878a2864b4765a25c10_Plank%20FINAL.pdf
- Stone, A. A., A. B. Krueger, A. Steptoe, and J. K. Harter. 2010. The socioeconomic gradient in daily colds and influenza, headaches, and pain, Archives of Internal Medicine 170(6): 570–572. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2010.20
- Summers, J. A., G. D. Shanks, M. G. Baker, and N. Wilson. 2013. Severe impact of the 1918–19 pandemic influenza in a national military force, The New Zealand Medical Journal 126(1378): 36–47.
- Summers, J. A., J. Stanley, M. G. Baker, and N. Wilson. 2014. Risk factors for death from pandemic influenza in 1918–1919: A case–control study, Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 8(3): 329–338. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.12228
- Summers, J. A., N. Wilson, M. G. Baker, and G. D. Shanks. 2010. Mortality risk factors for pandemic influenza on New Zealand troop ship, 1918, Emerging Infectious Diseases 16(12): 1931–1937. doi:https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1612.100429
- Sydenstricker, E. 1931. The incidence of influenza among persons of different economic status during the epidemic of 1918, Public Health Reports (1896–1970) 46(4): 154–170. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/4579923
- Taubenberger, J. K. 2003. Genetic characterisation of the 1918 ‘Spanish’ influenza virus, in H. Phillips and D. Killingray (eds), The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19: New Perspectives. London: Routledge, pp. 39–46.
- Taubenberger, J. K., A. H. Reid, T. A. Janczewski, and T. G. Fanning. 2001. Integrating historical, clinical and molecular genetic data in order to explain the origin and virulence of the 1918 Spanish influenza virus, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356(1416): 1829–1839. doi:https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2001.1020
- Tomkins, S. M. 1992. The failure of expertise: Public health policy in Britain during the 1918–19 influenza epidemic, Social History of Medicine 5(3): 435–454. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/shm/5.3.435
- Trauer, J. M., K. L. Laurie, J. McDonnell, A. Kelso, and P. G. Markey. 2011. Differential effects of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 on remote and indigenous groups; Northern Territory, Australia, 2009, Emerging Infectious Diseases 17(9): 1615–1623. doi:https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1709.101196
- Uscher-Pines, L., P. S. Duggan, J. P. Garoon, R. A. Karron, and R. R. Faden. 2007. Planning for an influenza pandemic: Social justice and disadvantaged groups, Hastings Center Report 37(4): 32–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/hcr.2007.0064
- van Daalen, K. R., C. Bajnoczki, M. Chowdhury, S. Dada, P. Khorsand, A. Socha, A. Lal et al. 2020. Symptoms of a broken system: The gender gaps in COVID-19 decision-making, BMJ Global Health 5(10): e003549. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003549
- Van Hartesveldt, F. R. 1992. The 1918–1919 Pandemic of Influenza: The Urban Impact in the Western World. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
- Wadhera, R. K., P. Wadhera, P. Gaba, J. F. Figueroa, K. E. Joynt Maddox, R. W. Yeh, and C. Shen. 2020. Variation in COVID-19 hospitalizations and deaths across New York City boroughs, JAMA 323(21): 2192–2195. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.7197
- Wastnedge, E. A. N., R. M. Reynolds, S. R. van Boeckel, S. J. Stock, F. C. Denison, J. A. Maybin, and H. O. D. Critchley. 2021. Pregnancy and COVID-19, Physiological Reviews 101(1): 303–318. doi:https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00024.2020
- Williamson, E. J., A. J. Walker, K. Bhaskaran, S. Baco, C. Bates, C. E. Morton, H. J. Curtis et al. 2020. Factors associated with Covid-19-related death using OpenSAFELY, Nature 584(7821): 430–436. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4
- Wilson, N., L. T. Barnard, J. A. Summers, G. D. Shanks, and M. G. Baker. 2012. Differential mortality rates by ethnicity in 3 influenza pandemics over a century, New Zealand, Emerging Infectious Diseases 18(1): 71–77. doi:https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1801.110035
- Wilson, N., O. Mansoor, and M. Baker. 2018. The first analytic evidence for socio-economic gradients in 1918 pandemic influenza mortality rates for New Zealand, The New Zealand Medical Journal 131(1486): 50–53.
- Worldometer. 2021. COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic. Available: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/.
- Wu, Y. C., C. S. Chen, and Y. J. Chan. 2020. The outbreak of COVID-19: An overview, Journal of the Chinese Medical Association 83(3): 217–220. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/JCMA.0000000000000270
- Yang, T. C., S. W. Emily Choi, and F. Sun. 2021. COVID-19 cases in US counties: Roles of racial/ethnic density and residential segregation, Ethnicity & Health 26(1): 11–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2020.1830036
- Zelner, J., R. Trangucci, R. Naraharisetti, A. Cao, R. Malosh, K. Broen, N. Masters et al. 2021. Racial disparities in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality are driven by unequal infection risks, Clinical Infectious Diseases 72(5): e88–e95. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1723
- Zylberman, P. 2003. A holocaust in a holocaust: The Great War and the 1918 Spanish influenza epidemic in France, in H. Phillips and D. Killingray (eds), The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19. New Perspectives. London: Routledge Social History of Medicine Series, pp. 191–201.