Heart rate as cardiovascular risk factor

References

• Leistner D, Klotsche J, Palm S, et al., DETECT Study Group. Resting heart rate as a tool for risk stratification in primary care: does it provide incremental prognostic information? Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2012;19:275–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox K, Borer JS, Camm AJ, et al. Heart rate working group. Resting heart rate in cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:823–830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, et al., for the PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ. 2009;339:b2535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy MN. Autonomic interactions in cardiac control. Cardiovasc Res. 1970;4:160–167.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith ML, Hudson D, Graitzer HM, et al. Exercise training bradycardia: the role of autonomic balance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21:40–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancia G, Mark AL. Arterial baroreflexes in humans. In: Shepherd JT, Abboud FM, editors. Handbook of physiology, section 2: the cardiovascular system. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society; 1983. p. 755–793.
   Google Scholar
• Guyenet PG. Regulation of breathing and autonomic outflows by chemoreceptors. Compr Physiol. 2014;4:1511–1562.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckberg DL. Human sinus arrhythmia as an index of vagal cardiac outflow. J Appl Physiol. 1983;54:961–966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grassi G, Seravalle G, Mancia G. Sympathetic activation in cardiovascular disease: evidence, clinical impact and therapeutic implications. Eur J Clin Invest. 2015;45:1367–1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancia G, Ferrari A, Gregorini L, et al. Blood pressure and heart rate variabilities in normotensive and hypertensive human beings. Clin Res. 1983;53:96–104.
   Google Scholar
• Sayers BM. Analysis of heart rate variability. Ergonomics. 1973;16:17–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Heart rate variability. Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Eur Heart J. 1996;17:354–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunan D, Sandercock GR, Brodie DA. A quantitative systematic review of normal values for short-term heart rate variability in healthy adults. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2010;33:1407–1417.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombardi F, Stein PK. Origin of heart rate variability and turbulence: an appraisal of autonomic modulation of cardiovascular function. Frontiers Physiol. 2011;2:22–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuji H, Larson MG, Venditti FJ, et al. Impact of reduced heart rate variability on risk for cardiac events. The framingham heart study. Circulation. 1999;94:2850–2855.
   Google Scholar
• Lang CC, Gupta S, Kalra P, et al. Elevated heart rate and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease: clinical evidence and pathophysiological mechanisms. Atherosclerosis. 2010;212:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology and the European society of hypertension: the task force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European society of cardiology and the European society of hypertension. J Hypertens. 2018;36:1953–2041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grassi G, Seravalle G, Bertinieri G, et al. Behaviour of the adrenergic cardiovascular drive in atrial fibrillation and cardiac arrhythmias. Acta Physiol Scand. 2003;177:399–404.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feigl EO. Coronary physiology. Physiol Rev. 1983;63:1–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamerson KA, Julius S, Gudbrandsson T, et al. Reflex sympathetic activation induces acute insulin resistance in the human forearm. Hypertension. 1993;21:618–623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Custodis F, Schirmer SH, Baumhakel M, et al. Vascular pathophysiology in response to increased heart rate. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:1973–1983.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang D, Shen X, Qi X. Resting heart rate and all cause and cardiovascular mortality in the general population: a meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2016;188:E53–E63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenland P, Daviglus ML, Dyer AR, et al. Resting heart rate is a risk factor for cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality: the Chicago heart association detection project in industry. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;149:853–862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng YJ, Macera CA, Church TS, et al. Heart rate reserve as a predictor of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34:1873–1878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reunanen A, Karjalainen J, Ristola P, et al. Heart rate and mortality. J Intern Med. 2000;247:231–239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adabag AS, Grandits GA, Prineas RJ, et al., MRFIT Research Group. Relation of heart rate parameters during exercise test to sudden death and all-cause mortality in asymptomatic men. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101:1437–1443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxena A, Minton D, Lee DC, et al. Protective role of resting heart rate on all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. Mayo Clin Proc. 2013;88:1420–1426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson PM, Nilsson JA, Hedblad B, et al. Sleep disturbance in association with elevated pulse rate for prediction of mortality–consequences of mental strain? J Intern Med. 2001;250:521–529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legeai C, Jouven X, Tafflet M, et al. Resting heart rate, mortality and future coronary heart disease in the elderly: the 3C Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2011;18:488–497.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Benetos A, Rudnichi A, Thomas F, et al. Influence of heart rate on mortality in a French population: role of age, gender, and blood pressure. Hypertension. 1999;33:44–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seccareccia F, Pannozzo F, Dima F, et al. Malattie cardiovascolari aterosclerotiche istituto superiore di sanità project. Heart rate as a predictor of mortality: the MATISS project. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:1258–1263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savonen KP, Lakka TA, Laukkanen JA, et al. Heart rate response during exercise test and cardiovascular mortality in middle-aged men. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:582–588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristal-Boneh E, Silber H, Harari G, et al. The association of resting heart rate with cardiovascular, cancer and all-cause mortality. Eight year follow-up of 3527 male Israeli employees (the CORDrosoph Inf Serv Study). Eur Heart J. 2000;21:116–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamura T, Hayakawa T, Kadowaki T, et al., NIPPONDATA80 Research Group. Resting heart rate and cause-specific death in a 16.5-year cohort study of the Japanese general population. Am Heart J. 2004;147:1024–1032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd JS, Sitlani CM, Wiggins KL, et al. Variation in resting heart rate over 4 years and the risks of myocardial infarction and death among older adults. Heart. 2015;101:132–138.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ó’Hartaigh B, Gill TM, Shah I, et al. Association between resting heart rate across the life course and all-cause mortality: longitudinal findings from the Medical Research Council (MRC) National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD). J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68:883–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen MT, Marott JL, Jensen GB. Elevated resting heart rate is associated with greater risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in current and former smokers. Int J Cardiol. 2011;151:148–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tverdal A, Hjellvik V, Selmer R. Heart rate and mortality from cardiovascular causes: a 12 year follow-up study of 379,843 men and women aged 40–45 years. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:2772–2781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mai JZ, Zhao LC, Liu XQ, et al. Association between heart rate and all-cause death and coronary event in the Chinese cohort: 16 years follow up results [Article in Chinese]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi. 2009;37:750–753.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kado DM, Lui LY, Cummings SR. Rapid resting heart rate: a simple and powerful predictor of osteoporotic fractures and mortality in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50:455–460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooney MT, Vartiainen E, Laatikainen T, et al. Elevated resting heart rate is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in healthy men and women. Am Heart J. 2010;159:612–619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho JE, Larson MG, Ghorbani A, et al. Long-term cardiovascular risks associated with an elevated heart rate: the Framingham heart study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3:e000668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang A, Chen S, Wang C, et al. Resting heart rate and risk of cardiovascular diseases and all-cause death: the Kailuan study. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e110985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mensink GB, Hoffmeister H. The relationship between resting heart rate and all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality. Eur Heart J. 1997;18:1404–1410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue R, Ohkubo T, Kikuya M, et al. Predictive value for mortality of the double product at rest obtained by home blood pressure measurement: the Ohasama study. Am J Hypertens. 2012;25:568–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansen CD, Olsen RH, Pedersen LR, et al. Resting, night-time, and 24 h heart rate as markers of cardiovascular risk in middle-aged and elderly men and women with no apparent heart disease. Eur Heart J. 2013;34:1732–1739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward M, Webster R, Murakami Y, et al., from the Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration. The association between resting heart rate, cardiovascular disease and mortality: evidence from 112,680 men and women in 12 cohorts. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2014;21:719–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nauman J, Janszky I, Vatten LJ, et al. Temporal changes in resting heart rate and deaths from ischemic heart disease. JAMA. 2011;306:2579–2587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kizilbash MA, Daviglus ML, Dyer AR, et al. Relation of heart rate with cardiovascular disease in normal-weight individuals: the Chicago heart association detection project in industry. Prev Cardiol. 2008;11:141–147.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sandvik L, Erikssen J, Thaulow E, et al. Physical fitness as a predictor of mortality among healthy, middle-aged Norwegian men. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:533–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen TW, Thijs L, Boggia J, et al., International Database on Ambulatory Blood Pressure in Relation to Cardiovascular Outcomes Investigators. Prognostic value of ambulatory heart rate revisited in 6928 subjects from 6 populations. Hypertension. 2008;52:229–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hozawa A, Ohkubo T, Kikuya M, et al. Prognostic value of home heart rate for cardiovascular mortality in the general population: the Ohasama study. Am J Hypertens. 2004;17:1005–1010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook S, Togni M, Schaub MC, et al. Higher heart rate: a cardiovascular risk factor? Eur Heart J. 2006;27:2387–2393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kannel WB, Kannel C, Paffenbarger RS Jr, et al. Heart rate and cardiovascular mortality: the Framingham study. Am Heart J. 1987;113:1489–1494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillman MW, Kannel WB, Belaner A, et al. Influence of heart rate on mortality among persons with hypertension: the Framingham study. Am Heart J. 1993;125:1148–1154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini P, Dorigatti F, Zaetta V, et al., HARVEST Study Group. Heart rate as a predictor of development of sustained hypertension in subjects screened for stage I hypertension: the HARVEST Study. J Hypertens. 2006;24:1873–1880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang A, Liu X, Guo X, et al. Resting heart rate and risk of hypertension: results of the Kailuan cohort study. J Hypertens. 2014;32:1600–1605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menotti A, Mulder I, Nissinen A, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and 10-year all-cause mortality in elderly European male populations: the FINE study. Eur Heart J. 2001;22:573–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puddu PE, Menotti A, Tolonen H, et al. Determinants of 40-year all-cause mortality in the European cohorts of the seven countries study. Eur J Epidemiol. 2011;26:595–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini P, Casiglia E, Julius S, et al. High heart rate. A risk factor for cardiovascular death in elderly men. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:585–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohm M, Schumacher H, Leong D, et al. Systolic blood pressure variation and mean heart rate is associated with cognitive dysfunction in patients with high cardiovascular risk. Hypertension. 2015;65:651–661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams B, Lacy PS. CAFE and the ASCOT (Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial) investigators. Impact of heart rate on central aortic pressures and hemodynamics: analysis from the CAFE (Conduit Artery Function Evaluation) study: CAFE-HeartRate. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:705–713.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomiyama H, Hashimoto H, Tanaka H, et al., baPWV/cfPWV Collaboaration Group. Synergistic relationship between changes in the pulse wave velocity and changes in the heart rate in middle-aged Japanese adults: a prospective study. J Hypertens. 2010;28:687–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjalmarson A, Gilpin EA, Kjekshus J, et al. Influence of heart rate on mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 1990;65:547–553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KL, Woodlief LH, Topol EJ, et al. Predictors of 30-day mortality in the era of reperfusion for acute myocardial infarction. Results from an international trial of 41021 patients. GUSTO-I Investigators. Circulation. 1995;91:1659–1668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuanetti G, Mantini L, Hernandez-Bernal F, et al. Relevance of heart rate as a prognostic factor in myocardial infarction: insights from the GISSI-2 study. Eur Heart J. 1998;19(suppl F):F19–F26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Granger CB, Goldberg RJ, Dabbous O, et al., Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events Investogators. Predictors of hospital mortality on the global registry of acute coronary events. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:2345–2353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen MT, Pereira M, Araujo C, et al. Heart rate at admission is a predictor of in-hospital mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Results from 58 European hospitals: the European Hospital Benchmarking by outcomes in acute coronary syndrome process study. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care. 2018;7:149–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz A, Bourassa MG, Guertin MC, et al. Long-term prognostic value of resting heart rate in patients with suspected or proven coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:967–974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang EY, Dixson J, Schiller NB, et al. Causes and predictors of death in patients with coronary heart disease (from the heart and soul study). Am J Cardiol. 2017;119:27–34.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fox K, Bousser MG, Amarenco P, et al., PERFORM Study investigators. Heart rate is a prognostic risk factor for myocardial infarction: a post hoc analysis in the PERFORM (prevention of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular Events of ischemic origin with teRutroban in patients with history oF ischemic strOke or tRansient ischeMic attack) study population. Int J Cardiol. 2013;168:3500–3505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang SL, Wang CL, Wang PL, et al. Resting heart rate associates with one-year risk of major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with acute coronary syndrome after percutaneous coronary intervention. Exp Biol Med. 2016;241:478–484.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heidland UE, Strauer BE. Left ventricular muscle mass and elevated heart rate are associated with coronary plaque disruption. Circulation. 2001;104:1477–1482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Wu NQ, Xu RX, et al. Elevated resting heart rate is associated with the severity of coronary artery disease in non-treated patients who underwent coronary angiography: potential role of lipoprotein subfractions. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2017;123:356–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seravalle G, Quarti Trevano F, Dell’Oro R, et al. Sympathetic and baroreflex alterations in congestive heart failure with preserved, midrange and reduced ejection fraction. J Hypertens. 2019;37:443–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dominguez E, Palau P, Nunez E, et al. Heart rate response and functional capacity in patients with chronic heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. ESC Heart Fail. 2018;5:579–585.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanchen D, Stott DJ, Gussekloo J, et al., PROSPER Group. Resting heart rate and incident heart failure and cardiovascular mortality in older adults: role of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction: the PROSPER study. Eur J Heart Fail. 2013;15:581–588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanchen D, Leening MJ, Locatelli I, et al. Resting heart rate and the risk of heart failure in healthy adults: the Rotterdam Study. Circ Heart Fail. 2013;6:403–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opdahl A, Ambale Venkatesh B, Fernandes VRS, et al. Resting heart rate as predictor for left ventricular dysfunction and heart failure: MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:1182–1189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAlister FA, Wiebe N, Ezekowitz JA, et al. Meta-analysis: beta blocker dose, heart rate reduction, and death in patients with heart failure. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:784–794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swedberg K, Komajda M, Bohm M, et al. SHIFT Investigators Ivabradine and outcomes in chronic heart failure (SHIFT): a randomized placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2010;376:875–885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotecha D, Holmes J, Krum H, et al., Beta-Blockers in Heart Failure Collaborative Group. Efficacy of B blockers in patients with heart failure plus atrial fibrillation: an individual-patient data meta analysis. Lancet. 2014;384:2235–2243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleland JGF, Bunting KV, Flather MD, et al., Beta-blockers in Heart Failure Collaborative Group. Beta-blockers for heart failure with reduced, mid-range, and preserved ejection fraction: an individual patient-level analysis of double blind randomized trials. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:26–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson J, Castagno D, Doughty RN, et al. Meta-analysis Global Group in Chronic Heart Failure (MAGGIC). Is heart rate a risk marker in patients with chronic heart failure and concomitant atrial fibrillation? Results from the MAGGIC meta-analysis. Eur J Heart Fail. 2015;17:1182–1191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komajda M, Isnard R, Cohen-Solal A, et al., prEserveD left ventricular ejectIon fraction chronic heart Failure with ivabradine studY (EDIFY) Investigators. Effects of ivabradine in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: the EDIFY randomized placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Heart Fail. 2017;19:1495–1503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu J, Dai L, Zhao Q, et al. Association of cumulative exposure to resting heart rate with risk of stroke in general population: the Kailuan Cohort study. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2017;26:2501–2509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aune D, Sen A, o’Hartaigh B, et al. Resting heart rate and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer, and all-cause mortality. A systematic review and dose-responses meta-analysis of prospective studies. Nutr Metab Cariovasc Dis. 2017;27:504–517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhong C, Zhong X, Xu T, et al. Combined effects of hypertension and heart rate on the risk of stroke and coronary heart disease: a population-based prospective cohort study among Inner Mongolians in China. Hypertens Res. 2015;38:883–888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharashova E, Wilsgaard T, Lochen ML, et al. Resting heart rate trajectories and myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation, ischemic stroke and death in the general population: the Tromso Study. Eur J Prevent Cardiol. 2017;24:748–759.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang YQ, Shen G, Huang JY, et al. A non linear association between resting heart rate and ischemic stroke among community elderly hypertensive patients. Postgraduate Med. 2019. DOI:10.1080/00325481.2019.1704544
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qiu M, Sato S, Zheng D, et al., INTERACT Investigators. Admission heart rate predicts poor outcomes in acute intracerebral hemorrhage: the intensive blood pressure reduction in acute cerebral hemorrhage trial studies. Stroke. 2016;47:1479–1485.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keon JL, Beom JK, Moon KH, on behalf of the CRCS-K (Clinical Research Collaboration for Stroke in Korea) Investigators. Effect of heart rate on stroke recurrence and mortality in acute ischemic stroke with atrial fibrillation. Stroke. 2020;51:162–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini P. Heart rate and the cardiometabolic risk. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2013;15:253–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shigetoh Y, Adachi H, Yamagishi S, et al. Higher heart rate may predispose to obesity and diabetes mellitus: 20-year prospective study in a general population. Am J Hypertens. 2009;22:151–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini P, Mos L, Santonastaso M, et al., HARVEST Study Group. Resting heart rate as a predictor of body weight gain in the early stage of hypertension. Obesity. 2011;19:618–623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grassi G, Arenare F, Quarti Trevano F, et al. Heart rate, sympathetic cardiovascular influences, and the metabolic syndrome. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;52:31–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aune D, o’Hartaigh L, Vatten LJ. Resting heart rate and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2015;25:526–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang L, Cui L, Wang Y, et al. Resting heart rate and the risk of developing impaired fasting glucose and diabetes: the Kailuan prospective study. Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44:689–699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee DH, de Rezende LFM, Hu FB, et al. Resting heart rate and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study and meta-analysis. Diabetes/Metab Res Rev. 2019;35:e3095.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carnethon MR, Golden SH, Folsom AR, et al. Prospective investigation of autonomic nervous system function and the development of type 2 diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study, 1987–1998. Circulation. 2003;107:2190–2195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long T, wang J, Han X, et al. Association between resting heart rate and incident diabetes risk: a Mendelian randomization study. Acta Diabetol. 2019;56:1037–1044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stettler C, Bearth A, Allemann S, et al. QTc interval and resting heart rate as long-term predictors of mortality in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 23-year follow-up. Diabetologia. 2007;50:186–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maser RE, Mitchell BD, Vinik AL, et al. The association between cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and mortality in individuals with diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:1895–1901.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohm M, Schumacher H, Teo KK, et al. Resting heart rate and cardiovascular outcomes in diabetic and non-diabetic individuals at high cardiovascular risk analysis from the ONTARGET/TRASCEND trials. Eur Heart J. 2018;1–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huang PL. eNOS, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2009;20:295–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirooka Y. Oxidative stress in the cardiovascular center has a pivotal role in the sympathetic activation in hypertension. Hypertens Res. 2011;34:407–412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freitas IF Jr, Monteiro PA, Silveira LS, et al. Resting heart rate as a predictor of metabolic dysfunctions in obese children and adolescents. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charakida M, Jones A, Falaschetti E, et al. Childhood obesity and vascular phenotypes: a population study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:2643–2650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly AS, Hebbel RP, Solovey AN, et al. Circulation activated endothelial cells in pediatric obesity. J Pediatr. 2010;157:547–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrow V, Wu S, Aguilar A, et al. Association between oxidative stress and masked hypertension in a muti-ethnic population of obese children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2011;158:628–633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini P, Vriz O, Nesbitt S, et al. Parental hemodynamic circulation predicts insulin resistance in offspring. The Tecumseh Offspring Study. Hypertension. 1999;33:769–774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perlini S, Naditch-Brule H, Farsang C, et al. Pulse pressure and heart rate in patients with metabolic syndrome across Europe: insights from GOOD survey. J Hum Hypertens. 2013;27:412–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, Luo X, Liu Y, et al. Resting heart rate and risk of metabolic syndrome in adults: a dose response meta-analysis of observational studies. Acta Diabetol. 2017;54:223–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang HI, Kim HC, Jeon JY. The association of resting heart rate with diabetes, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome in the Korean adult population: the fifth Korea National health and nutrition examination survey. Clin Chim Acta. 2016;455:195–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang S, Liu K, Zhang X, et al. Elevated resting heart rate predisposes metabolic syndrome in women rather than in men: a 15-year prospective study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2015;15:110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang XJ, Liu XX, Wu SL, et al. Metabolic syndrome is associated with and predicted by resting heart rate: cross-sectional and longitudinal findings from Kailuan study. Heart. 2015;101:44–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang SY, Shi J, Xie QX. Correlation of RHR with the MetS and its components in middle-aged and elderly women. Hainan Med J. 2015;26:2050–2053.
   Google Scholar
• Oda E, Aizawa Y. Resting heart rate predicts metabolic syndrome in apparently healthy non-obese Japanese men. Acta Diabetol. 2014;51:85–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licht CM, de Geus EJ, Penninx BW. Dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system predicts the development of the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:2484–2493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ó’Hartaigh B, Jiang CQ, Bosch JA, et al. Influence of heart rate at rest for predicting the metabolic syndrome in older Chinese adults. Acta Diabetol. 2013;50:325–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue T, Iseki K, Iseki C, et al. Effect of heart rate on the risk of developing metabolic syndrome. Hypertens Res. 2009;32:801–806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oda E, Kawai R. Significance of heart rate in the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its related risk factors in Japanese. Circ J. 2009;73:1431–1436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogowski O, Steinvil A, Berliner S, et al. Elevated resting heart rate is associated with the metabolic syndrome. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2009;8:55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue T, Iseki K, Iseki C, et al. Association between heart rate and multiple risk factor syndrome: cross-sectional analysis of a screened cohort in Okinawa, Japan. Circ J. 2008;72:454–457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomiyama H, Yamada J, Koji Y, et al. Heart rate elevation precedes the development of metabolic syndrome in Japanese men: a prospective study. Hypertens Res. 2007;30:417–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohm M, Schumacher H, Schmieder RE, et al. Resting heart rate is associated with renal disease outcomes in patients with vascular disease: results of the ONTARGET and TRASCEND studies. J Intern Med. 2015;278:38–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue T, Iseki K, Iseki C, et al. Heart rate as a risk factor for developing chronic kidney disease: longitudinal analysis of a screened cohort. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2009;13:487–493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen MT, Marott JL, Lange P, et al. Resting heart rate is a predictor of mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2012;42:341–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutten FH, Zuithoff NP, Hak E, et al. Beta blockers may reduce mortality and risk of exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:880–887.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopman FA, Tang MW, Vermeij J, et al. Autonomic dysfunction precedes development of rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective cohort study. EBioMedicine. 2016;6:231–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metsios GS, Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou A, Panoulas VF, et al. Association of physical inactivity with increased cardiovascular risk in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2009;16:188–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang G, Shi X, Davis-Brezette JA, et al. Resting heart rate changes after endurance training in older adults: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37:1381–1386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reimers CD, Knapp G, Reimers AK. Does physical activity increase life expectancy? A review of the literature. J Aging Res. 2012;2019:9.
   Google Scholar
• Hartaigh BO, Gill TM, Shah I, et al. Association between resting heart rate across the life course and all-cause mortality: longitudinal findings from the Medical Research Council (MRC) National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD). J Epidemiol Community Health. 2014;68:883–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng G, Li S, Huang M, et al. The effect of Tai Chi training on cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One. 2015;10:e0117360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer H, Lauche R, Haller H, et al. Effects of yoga on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2014;173:170–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grassi G, Seravalle G, Calhoun DA, et al. Physical training and baroreceptor control of sympathetic nerve activity in humans. Hypertension. 1994;23:294–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palatini P, Visentin P, Dorigatti F, et al., on behalf of the HARVEST Study Group. Regular physical activity prevents development of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:225–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benzer W, Rauch B, Schmid JP, et al., EuroCaReD study group. Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation in twelve European countries results of the European cardiac rehabilitation registry. Int J Cardiol. 2017;228:58–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson L, Thomson DR, Oldrige N, et al. Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;1:CD001800.
   Google Scholar