Psychological Benefits of an Active Lifestyle: What We Know and What We Need to Know

References

• Bandura , A. 1991 . “ Self-efficacy mechanism in physiological activation and health promoting behavior. ” . In Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect Edited by: Madden , J. 229 – 269 . New York : Raven Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. 1994 . Coping with stress: The effectiveness of exercise and other techniques . Quest , 46 : 100 – 119 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. , Friedman , E. and Eaton , M. 1988 . Comparison of jogging, the relaxation response, and group interaction for stress reduction . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 10 : 431 – 447 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. , Grove , J. R. , Prapavessis , H. and Butki , B. D. 1995 . Relationship of training distance and individual characteristics to mood alteration in young competitive swimmers. Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Mackenzie , M. M. 1980 . A case study of a woman jogger: A psychodynamic analysis . Journal of Sport Behavior , 3 : 3 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and McInman , A. 1993 . “ Exercise and the quality of life. ” . In Handbook of research on sport psychology Edited by: Singer , R. N. , Murphey , M. and Tennant , L. K. 729 – 760 . New York : Macmillan. .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1983 . Mood alteration with swimming-Swimmers really do “feel better.” . Psychosomatic Medicine , 45 : 425 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1986 . “ Mood alteration with swimming: A reexamination. ” . In Psychology and sociology of sport: Current selected research I. Edited by: Vander Velden , L. and Humphrey , J. H. New York : AMS Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1987 . Relationship between exercise and state, trait, and somatic anxiety . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 18 : 286 – 302 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1988 . Stress reduction and mood enhancement in four exercise modes: Swimming, body conditioning, hatha yoga, and fencing . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 59 : 148 – 159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1992a . Mood alteration with yoga and swimming: Aerobic exercise may not be necessary . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 75 : 1331 – 1343 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1992b . Preliminary analysis of a causal relationship between swimming and stress reduction: Intense exercise may negate the effects . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 23 : 70 – 85 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Owen , D. R. 1996 . Exercise Intensity and Psychological Stress Reduction. Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. , Owen , D. R. and Man , F. 1993 . A brief review of literature and examination of acute mood benefits of exercise in Czechoslovakian and United States swimmers . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 24 : 130 – 150 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair , S. 1995 . Exercise prescription for health . Quest , 47 : 338 – 353 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boutcher , S. 1993 . “ Emotion and aerobic exercise. ” . In Handbook on research in sport psychology Edited by: Singer , R. N. , Murphy , M. and Tennant , L. K. 799 – 814 . New York : Macmillan Publishing. .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , J. D. and Siegel , J. M. 1988 . Exercise as a buffer of life stress: A prospective study of adolescent health . Health Psychology , 7 : 341 – 355 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butki , B. D. , Berger , B. G. and Motl , R. M. 1995 . Mood and goal-orientation in sport and exercise participants. Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , J. D. 1990 . Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 : 538 – 549 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantwell , J. D. 1990 . From the heart to the Himalayas. Stone Mountain , GA : Envision. .
   Google Scholar
• Caspersen , C. J. , Merritt , R. K. and Stephens , T. 1995 . “ International physical activity patterns: A methodological perspective. ” . In Advances in exercise adherence Edited by: Dishman , R. K. 73 – 110 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Chopra , D. 1993 . Ageless body, timeless mind: The quantum alternative to growing old. New York : Harmony books. .
   Google Scholar
• Chopra , D. August 1995 . Body, mind, and spirit. August , Public Television Special
   Google Scholar
• Clayton , R. P. 1991 . Stress reactivity: Hemodynamic adjustments in trained and untrained humans . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 23 : 873 – 881 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crews , D. J. and Landers , D. M. 1987 . A meta-analytic review of aerobic fitness and reactivity to psychosocial stressors . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 19 : S114 – S120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csikszentmihaiyi , M. 1991 . Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York : Harper-Collins Perennial. .
   Google Scholar
• Diener , E. 1984 . Subjective well-being . Psychological Bulletin , 95 : 542 – 575 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener , E. and Diener , M. 1995 . Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 : 653 – 663 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener , E. and Fujita , F. 1995 . Resources, personal strivings, and subjective well-being: A nomothetic and idiographic approach . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 : 926 – 935 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dienstbier , R. A. 1989 . Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health . Psychological Review , 96 : 84 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dishman , R. 1995 . Physical activity and public health: Mental health . Quest , 47 : 362 – 385 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donahue , B. A. 1994 . “ The way of the warrior: One metaphor for individuation. ” . In Psyche and sports Edited by: Stein , M. and Hollwitz , J. 89 – 109 . Wilmette , IL : Chiron Publications. .
   Google Scholar
• Dunn , A. L. and Dishman , R. K. 1991 . “ Exercise and the neurobiology of depression. ” . In Exercise and sport science reviews Edited by: Holloszy , J. O. Vol. 19 , 41 – 98 . Baltimore : Williams and Wilkins. .
   Google Scholar
• Fahlberg , L. 1995 . Freedom and health promotion . American Journal of Health Promotion , 10 : 7 – 8 . 14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahlberg , L. L. and Fahlberg , L. A. 1994 . A human science for the study of movement: An integration of multiple ways of knowing . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 65 : 100 – 109 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahlberg , L. L. , Fahlberg , L. A. and Gates , W. K. 1992 . Exercise and existence: Exercise behavior from an existential-phenomenological perspective . The Sport Psychologist , 6 : 172 – 191 .
   Google Scholar
• Farmer , M. E. , Locke , B. Z. , Moscicki , E. K. , Dannenberg , A. L. , Larson , D. B. and Radloff , L. S. 1988 . Physical activity and depressive symptoms: The NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study . American Journal of Epidemiology , 128 : 1340 – 1351 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feist , G. J. , Bodner , T. E. , Jacobs , J. F. , Miles , M. and Tan , V. 1995 . Integrating top-down and bottom-up structural models of subjective well-being: A longitudinal investigation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 : 138 – 150 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman , L. A. 1995 . Variations in the circumplex structure of mood . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 : 806 – 817 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman , H. S. , Tucker , J. S. , Schwartz , J. E. , Tomlinson-Keasey , C. , Martin , L. R. , Wingard , D. L. and Criqui , M. H. 1995 . Psychosocial and behavioral predictors of longevity: The aging and death of the “Termites.” . American Psychologist , 50 : 69 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fussell , S. W. 1991 . Muscle: Confessions of an unlikely bodybuilder New York : Avon. .
   Google Scholar
• Gallup , G. Jr. and Castelli , J. 1989 . The people's religion. New York : Macmillan. .
   Google Scholar
• Glasser , W. 1976 . Positive addiction. New York : Harper and Row. .
   Google Scholar
• Graham , W. F. 1981 . “ The anxiety of the runner: Terminal helplessness. ” . In Psychology of Running Edited by: Sacks , M. H. and Sachs , M. L. 149 – 156 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Hayden , R. M. , Allen , G. J. and Camaione , D. N. 1986 . Some psychological benefits resulting from involvement in an aerobics fitness program from the perspectives of participants and knowledgeable informants . Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , 26 : 67 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hays , K. F. 1994 . Running therapy: Special characteristics and therapeutic issues of concern . Psychotherapy , 31 : 725 – 734 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hays , K. F. 1995 . Putting sport psychology into (your) practice . Professional Psychology-Research and Practice , 26 : 33 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heck , T. A. and Kimiecik , J. C. 1993 . What is exercise enjoyment? A qualitative investigation of adult exercise maintainers . Wellness Perspectives , 19 : 3 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• International Society of Sport Psychology . 1992 . Physical activity and psychological benefits: A position statement from the International Society of Sport Psychology . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 4 : 94 – 98 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnsgard , K. W. 1989 . The exercise prescription for depression and anxiety. New York : Plenum. .
   Google Scholar
• Kabat-Zinn , J. 1990 . Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York : Delacorte. .
   Google Scholar
• Kabat-Zinn , J. 1994 . Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York : Hyperion. .
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan , R. M. 1994 . The Ziggy Theorem: Toward an outcomes-focused health psychology . Health Psychology , 13 : 451 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimiecik , J. C. and Harris , A. T. 1995 . What is enjoyment: A conceptual/definitional analysis with implications for sport and exercise psychology. Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• King , A. C. , Taylor , C. B. and Haskell , W. L. 1993 . Effects of differing intensities and formats of 12 months exercise training on psychological outcomes in older adults . Health Psychology , 12 : 292 – 300 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostrubala , T. 1981 . “ Running: The grand delusion. ” . In Psychology of running Edited by: Sacks , M. H. and Sachs , M. L. 92 – 98 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Leon , A. S. and Norstrom , J. 1995 . Evidence of the role of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness in the prevention of coronary heart disease . Quest , 47 : 311 – 319 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long , B. C. and Stavel , R. V. 1995 . Effects of exercise training on anxiety: A meta-analysis . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 7 : 167 – 189 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandell , A. J. 1979 . The second second wind . Psychiatric Annals , 9 : 57 – 69 .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. 1992 . Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ) III: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of late adolescent self-concept. A test manual and a research monograph. Campbelltown , , Australia : University of Western Sidney, Macarthur, Faculty of Education. .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Perry , C. , Horsely , C. and Roche , L. 1995 . Multidimensional self-concepts of elite athletes: How do they differ from the general population? . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 17 : 70 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinsen , E. W. 1987 . “ Exercise and medication in the psychiatric patient. ” . In Exercise and mental health Edited by: Morgan , W. P. and Goldston , S. E. 85 – 95 . Washington , DC : Hemisphere Publishing. .
   Google Scholar
• Martinsen , E. W. 1993 . Therapeutic implications of exercise for clinically anxious and depressed patients . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 24 : 185 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinsen , E. W. and Stephens , T. 1994 . “ Exercise and mental health in clinical and free-living populations. ” . In Advances in exercise adherence Edited by: Dishman , R. K. 55 – 72 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Mayer , J. D. and Hanson , E. 1995 . Mood-congruent judgment over time . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 : 237 – 244 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAuley , E. , Courneya , K. S. and Lettunich , J. 1991 . Effects of acute and long-term exercise on self-efficacy responses in sedentary, middle-aged males and females . The Gerontologist , 31 : 534 – 542 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mclnman , A. and Berger , B. G. 1993 . Self-concept and mood changes associated with aerobic dance . Australian Journal of Psychology , 45 : 134 – 140 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNair , D. M. , Lorr , M. and Droppleman , L. F. 1992 . Edits manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego : Educational and Industrial Testing Service. .
   Google Scholar
• Melamed , B. B. 1995 . Introduction to the special section: The neglected psychological-physical interference . Health Psychology , 14 : 371 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , W. P. 1987 . “ Reduction of state anxiety following acute physical activity. ” . In Exercise and mental health Edited by: Morgan , W. P. and Goldston , S. E. 105 – 109 . Washington , DC : Hemisphere. .
   Google Scholar
• Morgan , W. P. , Brown , D. R. , Raglin , J. S. , O'Connor , P. J. and Ellickson , K A. 1987 . Psychological monitoring of overtraining and staleness . British Journal of Sports Medicine , 21 : 107 – 114 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgan , W. P. , Costill , D. L. , Flynn , M. G. , Raglin , J. S. and O'Connor , P. J. 1988 . Mood disturbance following increased training in swimmers . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 20 : 408 – 414 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , W. P. and Goldston , S. E. , eds. 1987 . Exercise and mental health. Washington , DC : Hemisphere. .
   Google Scholar
• Morris , W. M. 1989 . Mood: The frame of mind. New York : Springer-Verlag. .
   Google Scholar
• Moses , J. , Steptoe , A. , Mathews , A. and Edwards , S. 1989 . The effects of exercise training on mental well-being in the normal population: A controlled trial . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 33 : 47 – 61 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motl , R. M. , Berger , B. G. and Butki , B. D. 1996 . Effect of high intensity exercise on the mood states of collegiate cyclists. Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Moyers , B. 1993 . Healing and the mind. New York : Delacorte. .
   Google Scholar
• Ostrow , A. C. , ed. 1989 . Aging and motor behavior. Indianapolis , IN : Benchmark. .
   Google Scholar
• Pate , R. R. , Pratt , M. , Blair , S. N. , Haskell , W. L. , Macera , C. A. , Bouchard , C. , Buchner , D. , Ettinger , W. , Heath , G. W. , King , A. C. , Kriska , A. , Leon , A. S. , Marcus , B. H. , Morris , J. , Paffenbarger , R. S. , Patrick , K. , Pollock , M. L. , Rippe , J. M. , Sallis , J. and Wilmore , J. H. 1995 . Physical activity and public health: A recommendation from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine . Journal of the American Medical Association , 273 : 402 – 407 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce , T. W. , Madden , D. J. , Siegel , W. C. and Blumenthal , J. A. 1993 . Effect of aerobic exercise on cognitive and psychosocial functioning in patients with mild hypertension . Health Psychology , 12 : 286 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puretz , S. L. 1982 . Modern dance's effect on the body image . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 13 : 176 – 186 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rejeski , W. J. , Gregg , E. , Thompson , A. and Berry , M. 1991 . The effects of varying doses of acute aerobic exercise on psychophysiological stress responses in highly trained cyclists . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 13 : 188 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rejeski , W. J. and Shumaker , S. 1994 . Knee osteoarthritis and health-related quality of life . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 26 : 1441 – 1445 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Repetti , R. L. 1993 . Short-term effects of occupational stressors on daily mood and health complaints . Health Psychology , 12 : 125 – 131 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodewalt , F. and Agustsdottir , S. 1986 . Effects of self-presentation on the phenomenal self . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 50 : 47 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddick , C. C. 1984 . Comparative psychological profiles of three groups of female collegians: Competitive swimmers, recreational swimmers, and inactive swimmers . Journal of Sport Behavior , 7 : 160 – 174 .
   Google Scholar
• Rippere , V. 1977 . “What's the thing to do when you're feeling depressed?”—A pilot study . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 15 : 185 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose , B. , Larkin , D. and Berger , B. G. 1994 . The importance of motor ability for children's self-perception . Australian Journal of Psychology , 46 : 24
   Google Scholar
• Rudolph , D. L. and McAuley , E. 1995 . Self-efficacy and salivary Cortisol responses to acute exercise in physically active and less active adults . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 17 : 206 – 213 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rybczynski , W. 1991 . Waiting for the weekend. New York : Viking. .
   Google Scholar
• Sachs , M. L. and Buffone , G. W. , eds. 1984 . Running as therapy: An integrated approach. Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Sacks , M. 1984 . “ A psychoanalytic perspective on running. ” . In Running as therapy: An integrated approach Edited by: Sachs , M. L. and Buffone , G. W. 101 – 111 . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Sacks , M. H. and Sachs , M. L. , eds. 1981 . Psychology of running. Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Scanlan , T. K. and Simons , J. P. 1992 . “ The construct of sport enjoyment. ” . In Motivation in sport and exercise Edited by: Roberts , G. C. 199 – 215 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Schutz , R. W. and Gessaroli , M. E. 1993 . “ Use, misuse, and disuse of psychometrics in sport psychology research. ” . In Handbook of research on sport psychology Edited by: Singer , R. N. , Murphey , M. and Tennant , L. K. 901 – 917 . New York : Macmillan. .
   Google Scholar
• Sheehan , G. 1978 . Running and being: The total experience. New York : Simon and Schuster. .
   Google Scholar
• Sheehan , G. 1990 . The ages of a runner . Annals of Sports Medicine , 5 : 210
   Google Scholar
• Sheehan , G. 1995 . The road to self-discovery . Runner's World , 18 September
   Google Scholar
• Shephard , R. J. 1995 . Physical activity, fitness, and health: The current consensus . Quest , 47 : 288 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer , R. N. , Murphey , M. and Tennant , L. K. , eds. 1993 . Handbook of research on sport psychology. New York : Macmillan. .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , E. and Bumpus , A. 1978 . The running meditation response: An adjunct to psychotherapy . American Journal of Psychotherapy , 32 : 583 – 592 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonstroem , R. J. 1981 . Exercise and self-esteem: Recommendations for expository research . Quest , 33 : 124 – 139 .
   Google Scholar
• Sonstroem , R. J. , Harlow , L. L. , Gemma , L. M. and Osborne , S. 1991 . Test of structural relationships within a proposed exercise and self-esteem model . Journal of Personality Assessment , 56 : 348 – 364 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonstroem , R. J. and Morgan , W. P. 1989 . Exercise and self-esteem: Rational and model . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 21 : 329 – 337 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spirduso , W. W. 1995 . Physical dimensions of aging. Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics. .
   Google Scholar
• Steptoe , A. and Bolton , J. 1988 . The short-term influence of high and low intensity physical exercise on mood . Psychology of Health , 2 : 91 – 106 .
   Google Scholar
• Thayer , R. E. 1987 . Energy, tiredness and tension effects of a sugar snack vs. moderate exercise . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 : 119 – 125 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thayer , R. E. 1989 . The biopsychology of mood and arousal. New York : Oxford University Press. .
   Google Scholar
• Thayer , R. E. , Newman , R. and McClain , T. M. 1994 . Self-regulation of mood: Strategies for changing a bad mood, raising energy, and reducing tension . Journal of Personality and Social Behavior , 67 : 910 – 925 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker , W. A. 1987 . Effect of weight training on body attitudes: Who benefits most? . Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , 27 : 70 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wankel , L. M. 1993 . The importance of enjoyment to adherence and psychological benefits from physical activity . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 24 : 151 – 169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wankel , L. M. and Berger , B. G. 1991 . “ The personal and social benefits of sport and physical activity. ” . In Benefits of leisure Edited by: Driver , B. L. , PBrown , J. and Peterson , G. L. 121 – 144 . State College , PA : Venture. .
   Google Scholar
• Wankel , L. M. and Sefton , J. M. 1989 . A season-long investigation of fun in youth sports . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 11 : 355 – 366 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkins , D. and Dhawan , N. 1989 . Do we need to distinguish the concepts of self-concept and self-esteem? . Journal of Social Behavior and Personality , 4 : 555 – 562 .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , D. , Clark , L. A. and Tellegen , A. 1988 . Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 54 : 1063 – 1070 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1992 . Webster's Dictionary of the English Language (Deluxe ed.) New York , NY : PMC Publishing Company, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. and Pennebaker , J. W. , eds. 1993 . Handbook of mental control. Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall. .
   Google Scholar
• Widmeyer , W. N. , Brawley , L. R. and Carron , A. V. 1990 . The effects of group size in sport . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 12 : 177 – 190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , P. D. 1994 . Physical activity, diet, and health: Independent and interactive effects . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 26 : 838 – 843 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar