Spatial spillovers and households’ involvement in the non-farm sector: evidence from rural Rwanda

REFERENCES

• Abdulai, A., & CroleRees, A. (2001). Determinants of income diversification amongst rural households in southern Mali. Food Policy, 26(4), 437–452. doi: 10.1016/S0306-9192(01)00013-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali, M., & Peerlings, J. (2011). Value added of cluster membership for micro enterprises of the handloom sector in Ethiopia. World Development, 39(3), 363–374. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.07.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson, M., Klaesson, J., & Larsson, J. P. (2016). How local are spatial density externalities? Neighbourhood effects in agglomeration economies. Regional Studies, 50(6), 1082–1095. doi: 10.1080/00343404.2014.968119
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• André, C., & Platteau, J. P. (1998). Land relations under unbearable stress: Rwanda caught in the Malthusian trap. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 34(1), 1–47. doi: 10.1016/S0167-2681(97)00045-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Artz, G. M., Kim, Y., & Orazem, P. F. (2016). Does agglomeration matter everywhere? New firm location decisions in rural and urban markets. Journal of Regional Science, 56(1), 72–95. doi: 10.1111/jors.12202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes, A. P., Hansson, H., Manevska-Tasevska, G., Shrestha, S. S., & Thomson, S. G. (2015). The influence of diversification on long-term viability of the agricultural sector. Land Use Policy, 49, 404–412. doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.08.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, C. B., Reardon, T., & Webb, P. (2001). Nonfarm income diversification and household livelihood strategies in rural Africa: Concepts, dynamics, and policy implications. Food Policy, 26(4), 315–331. doi: 10.1016/S0306-9192(01)00014-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigsten, A. (1983). Income distribution and development: Theory. Evidence, and policy. London: Heinemann Educational.
   Google Scholar
• Bigsten, A. (1996). The circular migration of smallholders in Kenya. Journal of African Economies, 5(1), 1–20. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jae.a020893
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bigsten, A., & Tengstam, S. (2011). Smallholder diversification and income growth in Zambia. Journal of African Economies, 20(5), 781–822. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejr017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bishop, P. (2009). Spatial spillovers and employment growth in the service sector. Service Industries Journal, 29(6), 791–803. doi: 10.1080/02642060902749310
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brülhart, M., & Sbergami, F. (2009). Agglomeration and growth: Cross-country evidence. Journal of Urban Economics, 65(1), 48–63. doi: 10.1016/j.jue.2008.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Combes, P. P. (2000). Economic structure and local growth: France, 1984–1993. Journal of Urban Economics, 47(3), 329–355. doi: 10.1006/juec.1999.2143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conley, T., & Udry, C. (2001). Social learning through networks: The adoption of new agricultural technologies in Ghana. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 83(3), 668–673. doi: 10.1111/0002-9092.00188
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dabalen, A., Paternostro, S., & Pierre, G. (2004). The returns to participation in the nonfarm sector in rural Rwanda (Policy Research Working Paper Series No. 3462). Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, B., Di Giuseppe, S., & Zezza, A. (2014). Income diversification patterns in rural sub-Saharan Africa: Reassessing the evidence (Policy Research Working Paper Series No. 7108). Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Dorosh, P., & Thurlow, J. (2014). Can cities or towns drive African development? Economy-wide analysis for Ethiopia and Uganda. World Development, 63, 113–123. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.10.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duranton, G., & Puga, D. (2004). Micro-foundations of urban agglomeration economies. In V. Henderson, & F. Thisse (Eds.), Handbook of regional and urban economics (Vol. 4, pp. 2063–2117). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
   Google Scholar
• Ellis, F. (2000). The determinants of rural livelihood diversification in developing countries. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 51(2), 289–302. doi: 10.1111/j.1477-9552.2000.tb01229.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frenken, K., Van Oort, F., & Verburg, T. (2007). Related variety, unrelated variety and regional economic growth. Regional Studies, 41(5), 685–697. doi: 10.1080/00343400601120296
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Getis, A., & Ord, J. K. (1992). The analysis of spatial association by use of distance statistics. Geographical Analysis, 24(3), 189–206. doi: 10.1111/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaeser, E. L., Kallal, H. D., Scheinkman, J. A., & Shleifer, A. (1992). Growth in cities. Journal of Political Economy, 100(6), 1126–1152. doi: 10.1086/261856
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffette-Nagot, F., & Schmitt, B. (1999). Agglomeration economies and spatial configurations in rural areas. Environment and Planning A, 31(7), 1239–1257. doi: 10.1068/a311239
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, H. (2011). Multilevel statistical models (4th ed.). Chichester: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Haggblade, S., Hazell, P., & Reardon, T. (2010). The rural nonfarm economy: Prospects for growth and poverty reduction. World Development, 38(10), 1429–1441. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.06.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansson, H., Ferguson, R., Olofsson, C., & Rantamäki-Lahtinen, L. (2013). Farmers’ motives for diversifying their farm business – The influence of family. Journal of Rural Studies, 32, 240–250. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2013.07.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, V., Kuncoro, A., & Turner, M. (1995). Industrial development in cities. Journal of Political Economy, 103(5), 1067–1090. doi: 10.1086/262013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isaksson, A. S. (2013). Manipulating the rural landscape: Villagisation and income generation in Rwanda. Journal of African Economies, 22(3), 394–436. doi: 10.1093/jae/ejs038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, J. (1969). The economy of cities. New York: Vintage.
   Google Scholar
• Jalan, J., & Ravallion, M. (2002). Geographic poverty traps? A micro model of consumption growth in rural China. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 17(4), 329–346. doi: 10.1002/jae.645
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, R. T. (2004). Do private transfers ‘displace’ the benefits of public transfers? Evidence from South Africa. Journal of Public Economics, 88(1–2), 89–112. doi: 10.1016/S0047-2727(02)00085-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanjouw, J. O., & Lanjouw, P. (2001). The rural non-farm sector: Issues and evidence from developing countries. Agricultural Economics, 26(1), 1–23. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-0862.2001.tb00051.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanjouw, P., Quizon, J., & Sparrow, R. (2001). Non-agricultural earnings in peri-urban areas of Tanzania: Evidence from household survey data. Food Policy, 26(4), 385–403. doi: 10.1016/S0306-9192(01)00010-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, D. J., Barham, B. L., & Robinson, B. (2011). Are there spatial spillovers in the adoption of clean technology? The case of organic dairy farming. Land Economics, 87(2), 250–267.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas, R. E., Jr. (1993). Making a miracle. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 61(2), 251–272. doi: 10.2307/2951551
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malecki, E. J. (2003). Digital development in rural areas: Potentials and pitfalls. Journal of Rural Studies, 19(2), 201–214. doi: 10.1016/S0743-0167(02)00068-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manski, C. F. (1993). Identification of endogenous social effects: The reflection problem. Review of Economic Studies, 60(3), 531–542. doi: 10.2307/2298123
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCann, P., & Ortega-Argilés, R. (2015). Smart specialization, regional growth and applications to European Union Cohesion Policy. Regional Studies, 49(8), 1291–1302. doi: 10.1080/00343404.2013.799769
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, D. (1999). African enterprise clusters and industrialization: Theory and reality. World Development, 27(9), 1531–1551. doi: 10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00074-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mundlak, Y. (1978). On the pooling of time series and cross section data. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 46(1), 69–85. doi: 10.2307/1913646
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). (2016). Poverty trend analysis report ( June). Kigali: NISR.
   Google Scholar
• Nooteboom, B. (2004). Inter-firm collaboration, learning and networks: An integrated approach. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Owoo, N. S., & Naudé, W. (2017). Spatial proximity and firm performance: Evidence from nonfarm rural enterprises in Ethiopia and Nigeria. Regional Studies, 51(5), 688–700. doi: 10.1080/00343404.2015.1131896
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravallion, M., & Chen, S. (2007). China’s (uneven) progress against poverty. Journal of Development Economics, 82(1), 1–42. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reardon, T., Delgado, C. L., & Matlon, P. (1992). Determinants and effects of income diversification amongst farm households in Burkina Faso. Journal of Development Studies, 28(1), 264–296. doi: 10.1080/00220389208422232
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reardon, T., Taylor, J. E., Stamoulis, K., Lanjouw, P., & Balisacan, A. (2000). Effects of nonfarm employment on rural income inequality in developing countries: An investment perspective. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 51(2), 266–288. doi: 10.1111/j.1477-9552.2000.tb01228.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rijkers, B., & Söderbom, M. (2013). The effects of risk and shocks on nonfarm enterprise development in rural Ethiopia. World Development, 45, 119–136. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rijkers, B., Söderbom, M., & Loening, J. L. (2010). A rural–urban comparison of manufacturing enterprise performance in Ethiopia. World Development, 38(9), 1278–1296. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.02.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Pose, A. (2001). Is R&D investment in lagging areas of Europe worthwhile? Theory and empirical evidence. Papers in Regional Science, 80(3), 275–295. doi: 10.1007/PL00013631
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romer, P. M. (1986). Increasing returns and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy, 94(5), 1002–1037. doi: 10.1086/261420
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, S. S., & Strange, W. C. (2004). Evidence on the nature and sources of agglomeration economies. In J. V. Henderson & J. F. Thisse (Eds.), Handbook of regional and urban economics (Vol. 4). Amsterdam: Elsevier North-Holland.
   Google Scholar
• Shor, B., Bafumi, J., Keele, L., & Park, D. (2007). A Bayesian multilevel modeling approach to time-series cross-sectional data. Political Analysis, 15(2), 165–181. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpm006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skrondal, A., & Rabe-Hesketh, S. (2004). Generalized latent variable modeling: Multilevel, longitudinal, and structural equation models. CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, D. R., Gordon, A., Meadows, K., & Zwick, K. (2001). Livelihood diversification in Uganda: Patterns and determinants of change across two rural districts. Food Policy, 26(4), 421–435. doi: 10.1016/S0306-9192(01)00012-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snijders, T. A. B., & Berkhof, J. (2006). Diagnostic checks for multilevel models. In J. de Leeuw (Ed.), Handbook of multilevel analysis (pp. 141–175). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Storper, M., & Venables, A. J. (2004). Buzz: Face-to-face contact and the urban economy. Journal of Economic Geography, 4(4), 351–370. doi: 10.1093/jnlecg/lbh027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uwitonze, E., & Heshmati, A. (2016). Service sector development and its determinants in Rwanda (Discussion Paper No. 10117). Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labour (IZA).
   Google Scholar
• Wixe, S. (2015). The impact of spatial externalities: Skills, education and plant productivity. Regional Studies, 49(12), 2053–2069. doi: 10.1080/00343404.2014.891729
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wollni, M., & Andersson, C. (2014). Spatial patterns of organic agriculture adoption: Evidence from Honduras. Ecological Economics, 97, 120–128. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.11.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar