New cardiovascular risk markers: The race is on, but are there any winners?

References

• Niinisalo P., Raitala A., Pertovaara M., Oja S. S., Lehtimäki T., Kähönen M., et al. Indoleamine 2,3‐dioxygenase activity associates with cardiovascular risk factors: The Health 2000 study. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2008; 68: 767–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellor A. L., Munn D. H. Tryptophan catabolism and regulation of adaptive immunity. J Immunol 2003; 170: 5809–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libby P., Ridker P. M., Maseri A. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002; 105: 1135–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang T. J. New cardiovascular risk factors exist, but are they clinically useful?. Eur Heart J 2008; 29: 441–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zethelius B., Johnston N., Venge P. Troponin I as a predictor of coronary heart disease and mortality in 70‐year‐old men: a community‐based cohort study. Circulation 2006; 113: 1071–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zethelius B., Berglund L., Sundstrom J., Ingelsson E., Basu S., Larsson A., et al. Use of multiple biomarkers to improve the prediction of death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2107–16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcken D. E., Wilcken B. The pathogenesis of coronary artery disease. A possible role for methionine metabolism. J Clin Invest 1976; 57: 1079–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nygard O., Nordrehaug J. E., Refsum H., Ueland P. M., Farstad M., Vollset S. E. Plasma homocysteine levels and mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 230–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omland T., Samuelsson A., Hartford M., Herlitz J., Karlsson T., Christensen B., et al. Serum homocysteine concentration as an indicator of survival in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1834–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers J. C., McGregor A., Jean‐Marie J., Obeid O. A., Kooner J. S. Demonstration of rapid onset vascular endothelial dysfunction after hyperhomocysteinemia: an effect reversible with vitamin C therapy. Circulation 1999; 99: 1156–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers J. C., Ueland P. M., Obeid O. A., Wrigley J., Refsum H., Kooner J. S. Improved vascular endothelial function after oral B vitamins: an effect mediated through reduced concentrations of free plasma homocysteine. Circulation 2000; 102: 2479–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toole J. F., Malinow M. R., Chambless L. E., Spence J. D., Pettigrew L. C., Howard V. J., et al. Lowering homocysteine in patients with ischemic stroke to prevent recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction, and death: the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 2004; 291: 565–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonaa K. H., Njolstad I., Ueland P. M., Schirmer H., Tverdal A., Steigen T., et al. Homocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1578–88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonn E., Yusuf S., Arnold M. J., Sheridan P., Pogue J., Micks M., et al. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1567–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omland T., Waehre T. Natriuretic peptides and inflammatory markers for risk stratification in patients with ischemic heart disease. Biomarkers in heart disease. American Heart Association Clinical Series, J. A de Lemos. Blackwell, Oxford 2008, In press
   Google Scholar
• Ehrenstein M. R., Jury E. C., Mauri C. Statins for atherosclerosis – as good as it gets?. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 73–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker P. M., Cannon C. P., Morrow D., Rifai N., Rose L. M., McCabe C. H., et al. C‐reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 20–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nissen S. E., Tuzcu E. M., Schoenhagen P., Crowe T., Sasiela W. J., Tsai J., et al. Statin therapy, LDL cholesterol, C‐reactive protein, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 29–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00239681. JUPITER‐Crestor 20 mg Versus Placebo in Prevention of Cardiovascular (CV) Events. Accessed 17 July 2008
   Google Scholar
• Maisel A. S., Bhalla V., Braunwald E. Cardiac biomarkers: a contemporary status report. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2006; 3: 24–34
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Braunwald E. Biomarkers in heart failure. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2148–59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bossuyt P. M., Reitsma J. B., Bruns D. E., Gatsonis C. A., Glasziou P. P., Irwig L. M., et al. Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: the STARD initiative. Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy. Clin Chem 2003; 49: 1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McShane L. M., Altman D. G., Sauerbrei W., Taube S. E., Gion M., Clark G. M. Reporting recommendations for tumor marker prognostic studies. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 9067–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasan R. S. Biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: molecular basis and practical considerations. Circulation 2006; 113: 2335–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley J. A., McNeil B. J. A method of comparing the areas under receiver operating characteristic curves derived from the same cases. Radiology 1983; 148: 839–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepe M. S., Janes H., Longton G., Leisenring W., Newcomb P. Limitations of the odds ratio in gauging the performance of a diagnostic, prognostic, or screening marker. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159: 882–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenland P., O'Malley P. G. When is a new prediction marker useful? A consideration of lipoprotein‐associated phospholipase A2 and C‐reactive protein for stroke risk. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 2454–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lloyd‐Jones D. M., Liu K., Tian L., Greenland P. Narrative review: Assessment of C‐reactive protein in risk prediction for cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med 2006; 145: 35–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prediction of mortality from coronary heart disease among diverse populations: Is there a common predictive function?. Heart 2002; 88: 222–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker P. M., Cushman M., Stampfer M. J., Tracy R. P., Hennekens C. H. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 973–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker P. M., Rifai N., Rose L., Buring J. E., Cook N. R. Comparison of C‐reactive protein and low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 1557–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridker P. M., Buring J. E., Cook N. R., Rifai N. C‐reactive protein, the metabolic syndrome, and risk of incident cardiovascular events: an 8‐year follow‐up of 14 719 initially healthy American women. Circulation 2003; 107: 391–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang T. J., Gona P., Larson M. G., Tofler G. H., Levy D., Newton‐Cheh C., et al. Multiple biomarkers for the prediction of first major cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 2631–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook N. R. Use and misuse of the receiver operating characteristic curve in risk prediction. Circulation 2007; 115: 928–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook N. R. Statistical evaluation of prognostic versus diagnostic models: beyond the ROC curve. Clin Chem 2008; 54: 17–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pencina M. J., D'Agostino R. B., Sr., D'Agostino R. B., Jr., Vasan R. S. Evaluating the added predictive ability of a new marker: from area under the ROC curve to reclassification and beyond. Stat Med 2008; 27: 157–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohman E. M., Armstrong P. W., Christenson R. H., Granger C. B., Katus H. A., Hamm C. W., et al. Cardiac troponin T levels for risk stratification in acute myocardial ischemia. GUSTO IIA Investigators. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1333–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aviles R. J., Askari A. T., Lindahl B., Wallentin L., Jia G., Ohman E. M., et al. Troponin T levels in patients with acute coronary syndromes, with or without renal dysfunction. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 2047–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braunwald E., Antman E. M., Beasley J. W., Califf R. M., Cheitlin M. D., Hochman J. S., et al. ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for the management of patients with unstable angina and non‐ST‐segment elevation myocardial infarction – summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients With Unstable Angina). J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 40: 1366–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thygesen K., Alpert J. S., White H. D., Jaffe A. S., Apple F. S., Galvani M., et al. Universal definition of myocardial infarction. Circulation 2007; 116: 2634–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latini R., Masson S., Anand I. S., Missov E., Carlson M., Vago T., et al. Prognostic value of very low plasma concentrations of troponin T in patients with stable chronic heart failure. Circulation 2007; 116: 1242–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peacock W. F., De M. T., Fonarow G. C., Diercks D., Wynne J., Apple F. S., et al. Cardiac troponin and outcome in acute heart failure. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2117–26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang T. J. Significance of circulating troponins in heart failure: if these walls could talk. Circulation 2007; 116: 1217–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maisel A. S., Krishnaswamy P., Nowak R. M., McCord J., Hollander J. E., Duc P., et al. Rapid measurement of B‐type natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 161–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Januzzi J. L., Jr., Camargo C. A., Anwaruddin S., Baggish A. L., Chen A. A., Krauser D. G., et al. The N‐terminal Pro‐BNP investigation of dyspnea in the emergency department (PRIDE) study. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95: 948–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omland T., Persson A., Ng L., O'Brien R., Karlsson T., Herlitz J., et al. N‐terminal pro‐B‐type natriuretic peptide and long‐term mortality in acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2002; 106: 2913–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omland T., Sabatine M. S., Jablonski K. A., Rice M. M., Hsia J., Wergeland R., et al. Prognostic value of B‐Type natriuretic peptides in patients with stable coronary artery disease: the PEACE Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 205–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang T. J., Larson M. G., Levy D., Benjamin E. J., Leip E. P., Omland T., et al. Plasma natriuretic peptide levels and the risk of cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 655–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerszten R. E., Wang T. J. The search for new cardiovascular biomarkers. Nature 2008; 451: 949–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow D. A., de Lemos J. A. Benchmarks for the assessment of novel cardiovascular biomarkers. Circulation 2007; 115: 949–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar