The understanding of the immunopathology in COVID-19 infection

References

• Woo PCY, Huang Y, Lau SK, et al. Coronavirus genomics and bioinformatics analysis. Viruses. 2010;2(8):1804–1820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen L, Liu W, Zhang Q, et al. RNA based mNGS approach identifies a novel human coronavirus from two individual pneumonia cases in 2019 Wuhan outbreak. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):313–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng J. SARS-CoV-2: an Emerging coronavirus that causes a global threat. Int J Biol Sci. 2020;16(10):1678–1685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, et al. Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin. Nature. 2020;579(7798):270–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(13):1199–1207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipnis SR, Hooper NM, Hyde R, et al. A human homolog of angiotensin-converting enzyme. Cloning and functional expression as a captopril-insensitive carboxypeptidase. J Biol Chem. 2000;275(43):33238–33243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donoghue M, Hsieh F, Baronas E, et al. A novel angiotensin-converting enzyme-related carboxypeptidase (ACE2) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin 1-9. Circ Res. 2000;87(5):E1–E9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masters PS. The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Adv Virus Res. 2006;66:193–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain S, Pan J, Chen Y, et al. Identification of novel subgenomic RNAs and noncanonical transcription initiation signals of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Virol. 2005;79(9):5288–5295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao W, Tamin A, Soloff A, et al. Effects of a SARS-associated coronavirus vaccine in monkeys. Lancet. 2003;362(9399):1895–1896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu X, Pan J, Tao J, et al. SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein antagonizes IFN-β response by targeting initial step of IFN-β induction pathway, and its C-terminal region is critical for the antagonism. Virus Genes. 2011;42(1):37–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cong Y, Ulasli M, Schepers H, et al. Nucleocapsid protein recruitment to replication-trancription complexes plays a crucial role in coroviral life cycle. J Virol. 2019;94(4):e01925–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caddy SL, Vaysburd M, Papa G, et al. Viral nucleoprotein antibodies activate TRIM21 and induce T cell immunity. EMBO J. 2021;40(5):e106228. doi: 10.15252/embj.2020106228.
   Google Scholar
• Leung DTM, Tam FCH, Ma CH, et al. Antibody response of patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) targets the viral nucleocapsid. J Infect Dis. 2004;190(2):379–386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(4):586–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao Y, Li L, Feng Z, et al. Comparative genetic analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV/SARS-CoV-2) receptor ACE2 in different populations. Cell Discov. 2020;6:11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):497–506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(10):970–971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bai Y, Yao L, Wei T, et al. Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. JAMA. 2020;323(14):1406–1407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badawi A, Ryoo SG. Prevalence of comorbidities in the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;49:129–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Fett C, Mack M, et al. Sex-based differences in susceptibility to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. J Immunol. 2017;198(10):4046–4053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao X. COVID-19: immunopathology and its implications for therapy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(5):269–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li G, Chen X, Xu A. Profile of specific antibodies to the SARS-associated coronavirus. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(5):508–509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou T, Wang H, Luo D, et al. An exposed domain in the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein induces neutralizing antibodies. J Virol. 2004;78(13):7217–7226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu HS, Hsieh YC, Su IJ, et al. Early detection of antibodies against various structural proteins of the SARS-associated coronavirus in SARS patients. J Biomed Sci. 2004;11(1):117–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed SF, Quadeer AA, McKay MR. Preliminary identification of potential vaccine targets for the COVID-19 coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) based on SARS-CoV immunological studies. Viruses. 2020;12(3):254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu L, Wei Q, Lin Q, et al. Anti-spike IgG causes severe acute lung injury by skewing macrophage responses during acute SARS-CoV infection. JCI Insight. 2019;4(4):e123158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneko N, Kuo H-H, Boucau J, Massachusetts Consortium on Pathogen Readiness Specimen Working Group, et al. Loss of Bcl-6-expressing T follicular helper cells and germinal centers in COVID-19. Cell. 2020;183(1):143–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang B, Zhou X, Zhu C, et al. Immune phenotyping based on the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and IgG level predicts disease severity and outcome for patients with COVID-19. Front Mol Biosci. 2020;7:157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakaguchi S, Yamaguchi T, Nomura T, et al. Regulatory T cells and immune tolerance. Cell. 2008;133(5):775–787.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, et al. Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(4):420–422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong RSM, Wu A, To KF, et al. Haematological manifestations in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome: retrospective analysis. BMJ. 2003;326(7403):1358–1362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qin C, Zhou L, Hu Z, et al. Dysregulation of immune response in patients with coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) in Wuhan, China. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(15):762–768.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li T, Qiu Z, Zhang L, et al. Significant changes of peripheral T lymphocyte subsets in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. J Infect Dis. 2004;189(4):648–651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wan S, Yi Q, Fan S, et al. Characteristics of lymphocyte subsetsand cytokines in peripheral blood of 123 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia (NCP). MedRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.02.10.20021832
   Google Scholar
• van den Brand JMA, Haagmans BL, van Riel D, et al. The pathology and pathogenesis of experimental severe acute respiratory syndrome and influenza in animal models. J Comp Pathol. 2014;151(1):83–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong CK, Lam CWK, Wu AKL, et al. Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;136(1):95–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons PE, Eisner MD, Thompson BT, et al. Lower tidal volume ventilation and plasma cytokine markers of inflammation in patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:230–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung CY, Poon LLM, Ng IHY, et al. Cytokine responses in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-infected macrophages in vitro: possible relevance to pathogenesis. J Virol. 2005;79(12):7819–7826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, HLH Across Speciality Collaboration, UK, et al. COVID-19: Consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1033–1034.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruscitti P, Berardicurti O, Di Benedetto P, et al. Severe COVID-19, another piece in the puzzle of the hyperferritinemic syndrome. An immunomodulatory perspective to alleviate the storm. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vercellotti GM, Khan FB, Nguyen J, et al. H-ferritin ferroxidase induces cytoprotective pathways and inhibits microvascular stasis in transgenic sickle mice. Front Pharmacol. 2014;5:79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulert GS, Grom AA. Macrophage activation syndrome and cytokine-directed therapies. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2014;28(2):277–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Y, Zhang C, Huang F, et al. Elevated plasma levels of selective cytokines in COVID-19 patients reflect viral load and lung injury. Natl Sci Rev. 2020;7(6):1003–1011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Shen C, Li J, et al. Plasma IP-10 and MCP-3 levels are highly associated with disease severity and predict the progression of COVID-19. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020;146(1):119–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang W, Liu X, Wu S, et al. The definition and risks of cytokine release syndrome-like in 11 COVID-19 infected pneumonia critically ill patients: disease characteristics and retrospective analysis. MedRxiv. 2020. doi: 10.1101/2020.02.26.20026989
   Google Scholar
• Smits SL, de Lang A, van den Brand JMA, et al. Exacerbated innate host response to SARS-CoV in aged non-human primates. PLOS Pathog. 2010;6(2):e1000756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Fehr AR, Vijay R, et al. Dysregulated type I interferon and inflammatory monocyte-macrophage responses cause lethal pneumonia in SARS-CoV-infected mice. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;19(2):181–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu Y, Cheng Y, Wu Y. Understanding SARS-CoV-2-mediated inflammatory responses: from mechanisms to potential therapeutic tools. Virol Sin. 2020;35(3):266–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Du R-H, Li B, et al. Molecular and serological investigation of 2019-nCoV infected patients: implication of multiple shedding routes. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):386–389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Channappanavar R, Perlman S. Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin Immunopathol. 2017;39(5):529–539.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang K-J, Su I-J, Theron M, et al. An interferon-gamma-related cytokine storm in SARS patients. J Med Virol. 2005;75(2):185–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theron M, Huang K-J, Chen Y-W, et al. A probable role for IFN-gamma in the development of a lung immunopathology in SARS. Cytokine. 2005;32(1):30–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGonagle D, Sharif K, O'Regan A, et al. The role of cytokines including interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced pneumonia and macrophage activation syndrome-like disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2020;19(6):102537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen G, Wu D, Guo W, et al. Clinical and immunological features of severe and moderate coronavirus disease 2019. J Clin Invest. 2020;130(5):2620–2629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien J-Y, Hsueh P-R, Cheng W-C, et al. Temporal changes in cytokine/chemokine profiles and pulmonary involvement in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Respirology. 2006;11(6):715–722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang Y, Liu J, Zhang D, et al. Cytokine storm in COVID-19: the current evidence and treatment strategies. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1708. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01708.
   Google Scholar
• Sun L, Louie MC, Vannella KM, et al. New concepts of IL-10-induced lung fibrosis: fibrocyte recruitment and M2 activation in a CCL2/CCR2 axis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2011;300(3):L341–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi T, Tanaka K, Fujita T, et al. Bidirectional role of IL-6 signal in pathogenesis of lung fibrosis. Respir Res. 2015;16:99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao XH, Li TY, He ZC, et al. [A pathological report of three COVID-19 cases by minimal invasive autopsies]. Zhonghua Bing Li Xue Za Zhi. 2020;49(5):411–417.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okabayashi T, Kariwa H, Yokota S-I, et al. Cytokine regulation in SARS coronavirus infection compared to other respiratory virus infections. J Med Virol. 2006;78(4):417–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. Immunotherapeutic implications of IL-6 blockade for cytokine storm. Immunotherapy. 2016;8(8):959–970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gubernatorova EO, Gorshkova EA, Polinova AI, et al. IL-6: Relevance for immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;53:13–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun P, Lu X, Xu C, et al. Understanding of COVID-19 based on current evidence. J Med Virol. 2020;92(6):548–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tufan A, Avanoğlu Güler A, Matucci-Cerinic M. COVID-19, immune system response, hyperinflammation and repurposing antirheumatic drugs. Turk J Med Sci. 2020;50(SI-1):620–632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Annane D, Pastores SM, Rochwerg B, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI) in critical ill patients (part I). Intensive Care Med. 2017;43(12):1751–1763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. Jama. 2012; 307:2326–2533.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, GRADE Working Group, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336(7650):924–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sterne JAC, Murthy S, Diaz JV, WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group, et al. Association between administration of systemic corticosteroids and mortality among critically ill patients with COVID-19:meta-analysis. Jama. 2020;324:1330–1341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schandelmaier S, Briel M, Varadhan R, et al. Development of the Instrument to assess the credibility of effect modification analyses (ICEMAN) in randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses. CMAJ. 2020;192(32):E901–906.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Clinical management of COVID-19. Interim guidance of Geneva; World Health Organisation; 2020 [cited 2020 Sep 1]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/clinical-management-of-covid-19.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. IMAI district clinician manual. Hospital care for adolescents and adults. Guidelines for the management of common illness with limited resources. Geneva: World Health Organisation; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Devaux CA, Rolain J-M, Colson P, et al. New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(5):105938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu J, Cao R, Xu M, et al. Hydroxychloroquine, a less toxic derivative of chloroquine, is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro. Cell Discov. 2020;6:16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg ES, Dufort EM, Udo T, et al. Association of treatment with hydroxychloroquine or azithromycin with in-hospital mortality in patients with COVID-19 in New York state. JAMA. 2020;323(24):2493–2502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stebbing J, Phelan A, Griffin I, et al. COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(4):400–402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. “Solidarity” clinical trial for COVID-19 treatments; 2020, July 20 [cited 2020 August 11]. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/global-research-on-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/solidarity-clinical-trial-for-covid-19-treatments.
   Google Scholar
• Chen C, Zhang XR, Ju ZY, et al. Advances in the research of mechanism and related immunotherapy on the cytokine storm induced by coronavirus disease 2019. Zhonghua Shao Shang Za Zhi. 2020;36(6):471–475.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mihara M, Kasutani K, Okazaki M, et al. Tocilizumab inhibits signal transduction mediated by both mIL-6R and sIL-6R, but not by the receptors of other members of IL-6 cytokine family. Int Immunopharmacol. 2005;5(12):1731–1740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu X, Han M, Li T, et al. Effective treatment of severe COVID-19 patients with tocilizumab. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(20):10970–10975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutherford AI, Subesinghe S, Hyrich KL, et al. Serious infection across biologic-treated patients with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the British Society for Rheumatology Biologics Register for rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2018;77:905–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He G, Li Q, Li W, et al. Effect of ulinastatin on interleukins and pulmonary function in bypass patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials . Herz. 2020;45(4):335–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang W, Zhao Y, Zhang F, et al. The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): the perspectives of clinical immunologists from China. Clin Immunol. 2020;214:108393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dastan F, Nadji SA, Saffaei A, et al. Subcutaneous administration of interferon beta-1a for COVID-19: a non-controlled prospective trial. Int Immunopharmacol. 2020;85:106688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo W, Li Y-X, Jiang L-J, et al. Targeting JAK-STAT signaling to control cytokine release syndrome in COVID-19. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2020;41(8):531–543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walz L, Cohen AJ, Rebaza AP, et al. JAK-inhibitor and type I interferon ability to produce favorable clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(47). doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05730-z.
   Google Scholar
• Cantini F, Niccoli L, Matarrese D, et al. Baricitinib therapy in COVID-19: A pilot study on safety and clinical impact. J Infect. 2020;81(2):318–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giudice V, Pagliano P, Vatrella A, et al. Combination of ruxolitinib and eculizumab for treatment of severe SARS-CoV-2-related acute respiratory distress syndrome: a controlled study. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:857.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang D, Zhao P, Zhang D, et al. Persistent viral presence determines the clinical course of the disease in COVID-19. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2020;8(8):2585–2591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shakoory B, Carcillo JA, Chatham WW, et al. Interleukin-1 receptor blockade is associated with reduced mortality in sepsis patients with features of macrophage activation syndrome: reanalysis of a prior phase III trial. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(2):275–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldmann M, Maini RN, Woody JN, et al. Trials of anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy for COVID-19 are urgently needed. Lancet. 2020;395(10234):1407–1409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson PC, Duncan R, Tanner HL, et al. Accumulating evidence suggests anti-TNF therapy needs to be given trial priority in COVID-19 treatment. Lancet Rheumtaol. 2020;2:653–655.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar