99
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Social Media and Gendered Mobilization to High-Risk Campaigns in Gender-Repressive Contexts: The Case of the 2011 Egyptian Protest Movement

References

  • Ali, Sadaf R., and Shahira Fahmy. 2013. “Gatekeeping and Citizen Journalism: The Use of Social Media During the Recent Uprisings in Iran, Egypt, and Libya.” Media, War & Conflict 6(1):55–69. doi: 10.1177/1750635212469906.
  • Allam, Nermin. 2018. Women and the Egyptian Uprising: Engagement and Activism During the 2011 Arab Uprisings. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Amnesty International. 2015. “‘Circles of Hell’: Domestic, Public and State Violence Against Women in Egypt,” January 20. https://www.amnestyusa.org/reports/circles-of-hell-domestic-public-and-state-violence-against-women-in-egypt/
  • Arab Barometer. 2011. “Arab Barometer Wave II (2010–2011).” Arab Barometer. http://www.arabarometer.org/survey-data/data-downloads/.
  • Azab, Marian, and Wayne A. Santoro. 2017. “Rethinking Fear and Protest: Racialized Repression of Arab Americans and the Mobilization Benefits of Being Afraid.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 22(4):473–91. doi: 10.17813/1086-671X-22-4-473.
  • Barrons, Genevieve. 2012. “‘Suleiman: Mubarak Decided to Step Down #egypt #Jan25 OH MY GOD’: Examining the Use of Social Media in the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.” Contemporary Arab Affairs 5(1):54–67. doi: 10.1080/17550912.2012.645669.
  • Barsoum, Ghada. 2007. “Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey 2006: Report on Methodology and Data Collection.” In Economic Research Forum (ERF) Working Paper Series 704.
  • Berry, Marie, and Chenoweth. Erica. 2018. “Who Made the Women’s March?” Pp. 75–89 in The Resistance: The Dawn of the Anti-Trump Opposition Movement, edited by D. S. Meyer and S. Tarrow. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Bogen, Katherine W., Kaitlyn K. Bleiweiss, Nykia R. Leach, and Lindsay M. Orchowski. 2021. “#metoo: Disclosure and Response to Sexual Victimization on Twitter.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(17–18):8257–88. doi: 10.1177/0886260519851211.
  • Bruni, Nancy Matteuzzi. 2013. “Recruiting High‐risk Activists: Exploring the Roles of Structural and Cultural Factors.” Sociology Compass 7(10):880–87. doi: 10.1111/soc4.12070.
  • Burns, Alex, and Ben Eltham 2009 “Twitter Free Iran: An Evaluation of Twitter’s Role in Public Diplomacy and Information Operations in Iran’s 2009 Election Crisis.” Communications Policy and Research Forum 2009, November 19–20. University of Technology, Sydney. https://vuir.vu.edu.au/15230/.
  • Chiluwa, Innocent. 2021. “Women’s Online Advocacy Campaigns for Political Participation in Nigeria and Ghana.” Critical Discourse Studies 19(5):1–20. doi: 10.1080/17405904.2021.1999287.
  • Choudhary, Alok, William Hendrix, Kathy Lee, Diana Palsetia, and Wei-Keng Liao. 2012. “Social Media Evolution of the Egyptian Revolution.” Communications of the ACM 55(5):74–80. doi: 10.1145/2160718.2160736.
  • Deluca, Kevin M., Sean Lawson, and Ye Sun. 2012. “Occupy Wall Street on the Public Screens of Social Media: The Many Framings of the Birth of a Protest Movement.” Communication Culture & Critique 5(4):483–509. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-9137.2012.01141.x.
  • Diani, Mario. 2000. “Social Movement Networks Virtual and Real.” Information, Communication & Society 3(3):386–401. doi: 10.1080/13691180051033333.
  • Dorsey, James. 2012. “Pitched Battles: The Role of Ultra Soccer Fans in the Arab Spring.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 17(4):411–18. doi: 10.17813/maiq.17.4.867h607862q165r7.
  • Earl, Jennifer. 2006. “Pursuing Social Change Online: The Use of Four Protest Tactics on the Internet.” Social Science Computer Review 24(3):362–77. doi: 10.1177/0894439305284627.
  • Earl, Jennifer, and Katrina Kimport. 2010. “The Diffusion of Different Types of Internet Activism: Suggestive Patterns in Website Adoption of Innovations.” Pp. 125–39 in The Diffusion of Social Movements: Actors, Mechanisms, and Political Effects, edited by R. K. Givan, K. M. Roberts, and S. A. Soule. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Earl, Jennifer, and Katrina Kimport. 2011. Digitally Enabled Social Change: Activism in the Internet Age. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
  • Earl, Jennifer, Katrina Kimport, Greg Prieto, Carly Rush, and Kimberly Reynoso. 2010. “Changing the World One Webpage at a Time: Conceptualizing and Explaining Internet Activism.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 15(4):425–46. doi: 10.17813/maiq.15.4.w03123213lh37042.
  • Einwohner, Rachel L., and Elle Rochford. 2019. “After the March: Using Instagram to Perform and Sustain the Women’s March.” Sociological Forum 34(S1):1090–111. doi: 10.1111/socf.12542.
  • Eltantawy, Nahed, and Julie B. Wiest. 2011. “Social Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Reconsidering Resource Mobilization Theory.‟ International Journal of Communication 5:1207–24.
  • Fakhry, Adel M. 2016. “EGP 482 per Month Becomes New Poverty Line.” Daily News Egypt. Accessed April 22, 2017. http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2016/07/27/egp-482-per-month-becomes-new-poverty-line/.
  • Faris, David. 2013. Dissent and Uprising in a Digital Age: Social Media, Blogging and Activism in Egypt. New York: IB Tauris.
  • Foust, Christina R., and Kate Drazner Hoyt. 2018. “Social Movement 2.0: Integrating and Assessing Scholarship on Social Media and Movement.” Review of Communication 18(1):37–55. doi: 10.1080/15358593.2017.1411970.
  • Gamal, Ali. 2015. “Egypt: The Lure for Girls of Living Alone.” BBC Arabic, July 21. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33347904.
  • Gerbaudo, Paolo, and Emiliano Treré. 2015. “In Search of the ‘We’ of Social Media Activism: Introduction to the Special Issue on Social Media and Protest Identities.” Information, Communication & Society 18(8):865–71. doi: 10.1080/1369118X.2015.1043319.
  • Ghonim, Wael. 2012. Revolution 2.0: The Power of the People is Greater Than the People in Power: A Memoir. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing.
  • Guirguis, Magdi. 2012. “The Copts and the Egyptian Uprising: Various Attitudes and Dreams.” Social Research 79(2):511–30. doi: 10.1353/sor.2012.0058.
  • Gundelach, Peter, and Jonas Toubøl. 2019. “High- and Low-Risk Activism: Differential Participation in a Refugee Solidarity Movement.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 24(2):199–220. doi: 10.17813/1086-671X-24-2-199.
  • Hairgrove, Frank, and Douglas M. McLeod. 2008. “Circles Drawing Toward High-Risk Activism: The Use of Usroh and Halaqa in Islamist Radical Movements.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 31(5):399–411. doi: 10.1080/10576100801995201.
  • Holmes, Amy. 2012. “There are Weeks When Decades Happen: Structure and Strategy in the Egyptian Revolution.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 17(4):391–410. doi: 10.17813/maiq.17.4.905210228n564037.
  • Idle, Nadia, and Alex Nunns. 2011. Tweets from Tahrir: Egypt’s Revolution as It Unfolded, in the Words of the People Who Made It. New York: OR Books.
  • Isa, Daud, and Itai Himelboim. 2018. “A Social Networks Approach to Online Social Movement: Social Mediators and Mediated Content in #FreeAJStaff Twitter Network.” Social Media + Society 4(1):1–14. doi: 10.1177/2056305118760807.
  • Joya, Angela. 2011. “The Egyptian Uprising: Crisis of Neoliberalism and the Potential for Democratic Politics.” Review of African Political Economy 38(129):367–86. doi: 10.1080/03056244.2011.602544.
  • Katz, Marion Holmes. 2014. Women in the Mosque: A History of Legal Thought and Social Practice. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Kerton, Sarah. 2012. “Tahrir, Here? The Influence of the Arab Uprisings on the Emergence of Occupy.” Social Movement Studies 11(3–4):302–08. doi: 10.1080/14742837.2012.704183.
  • Khamis, Sahar. 2011. “The Arab ‘Feminist’ Spring?” Feminist Studies 37(3):692–95. doi: 10.1353/fem.2011.0039.
  • Khamis, Sahar, and Katherine Vaughn. 2011. “Cyberactivism in the Egyptian Uprising: How Civic Engagement and Citizen Journalism Tilted the Balance.” Arab Media and Society 14(3):1–25.
  • LeFebvre, Rebecca Kay, and Crystal Armstrong. 2018. “Grievance-Based Social Movement Mobilization in the #Ferguson Twitter Storm.” New Media & Society 20(1):8–28. doi: 10.1177/1461444816644697.
  • Lotan, Gilad, Erhardt Graeff, Mike Ananny, Devin Gaffney, Ian Pearce, and danah boyd. 2011. “The Revolutions Were Tweeted: Information Flows During the 2011 Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions.” International Journal of Communication 5:1375–405.
  • Mansour, Essam. 2012. “The Role of Social Networking Sites (SNSs) in the January 25th Revolution in Egypt.” Library Review 61(2):128–59. doi: 10.1108/00242531211220753.
  • Masoud, Tarek. 2014. Counting Islam: Religion, Class, and Elections in Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • McAdam, Doug. 1986. “Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer.” The American Journal of Sociology 92(1):64–90. doi: 10.1086/228463.
  • McAdam, Doug. 1988. Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • McAdam, Doug. 1992. “Gender as a Mediator of the Activist Experience: The Case of Freedom Summer.” The American Journal of Sociology 97(5):1211–40. doi: 10.1086/229900.
  • McAdam, Doug, and Ronnelle Paulsen. 1993. “Social Ties and Activism: Towards a Specification of the Relationship.” The American Journal of Sociology 99(3):640–67. doi: 10.1086/230319.
  • McCarthy, John D., and Mayer N. Zald. 1977. “Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory.” The American Journal of Sociology 82(6):1212–41. doi: 10.1086/226464.
  • Morris, Aldon D. 1984. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: Free Press.
  • Mundt, Marcia, Karen Ross, and Charla M. Burnett. 2018. “Scaling Social Movements through Social Media: The Case of Black Lives Matter.” Social Media + Society 4(4):1–14. doi: 10.1177/2056305118807911.
  • Mungin, Lateef. 2011. “Amnesty: Egypt Far from Justice Over Unrest That Killed More Than 800.” CNN, May 19. http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/05/19/egypt.revolution.report.
  • Mutz, Diana C., and Jeffery J. Mondak. 2006. “The Workplace as a Context for Cross-Cutting Political Discourse.” The Journal of Politics 68(1):140–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00376.x.
  • Naber, Nadine, and Atef Said. 2016. “The Cry for Human Rights: Violence, Transition, and the Egyptian Revolution.” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 7(1):71–90. doi: 10.1353/hum.2016.0008.
  • Nawawy, Mohammed el-, and Sahar Khamis. 2014. “Blogging Against Violations of Human Rights in Egypt: An Analysis of Five Political Blogs.” International Journal of Communication 8:962–82.
  • Nepstad, Sharon Erickson. 2004. “Persistent Resistance: Commitment and Community in the Plowshares Movement.” Social Problems 51(1):43–60. doi: 10.1525/sp.2004.51.1.43.
  • Nepstad, Sharon, and Christian Smith. 1999. “Rethinking Recruitment to High-Risk/cost Activism: The Case of Nicaragua Exchange.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 4(1):25–40. doi: 10.17813/maiq.4.1.8152670287r21558.
  • Nepstad, Sharon Erickson, and Christian Smith. 2001. “The Social Structure of Moral Outrage in Recruitment to the U.S. Central America Peace Movement.” Pp. 158–74 in Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements, edited by J. Goodwin, J. M. Jasper, and F. Polletta. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Oegema, Dirk, and Bert Klandermans. 1994. “Why Social Movement Sympathizers Don’t Participate: Erosion and Nonconversion of Support.” American Sociological Review 59(5):703–22. doi: 10.2307/2096444.
  • Parkinson, Sarah Elizabeth. 2013. “Organizing Rebellion: Rethinking High-Risk Mobilization and Social Networks in War.” The American Political Science Review 107(3):418–32. doi: 10.1017/S0003055413000208.
  • Pew Research Center. 2014. “One Year After Morsi’s Ouster, Divides Persist on El-Sisi, Muslim Brotherhood: Frustration Mounts as Confidence in Democracy Wains,” May 22. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/22/one-year-after-morsis-ouster-divides-persist-on-el-sisi-muslim-brotherhood/.
  • Preston, Jennifer. 2011. “Wall Street Protest Spurs Online Dialogue on Inequality.” The New York Times, October 9, A22.
  • Pudrovska, Tetyana, and Myra Marx Ferree. 2004. “Global Activism in ‘Virtual Space’: The European Women’s Lobby in the Network of Transnational Women’s NGOs on the Web.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 11(1):117–43. doi: 10.1093/sp/jxh028.
  • Radsch, Courtney C., and Sahar Khamis. 2013. “In Their Own Voice: Technologically Mediated Empowerment and Transformation Among Young Arab Women.” Feminist Media Studies 13(5):881–90. doi: 10.1080/14680777.2013.838378.
  • Rizzo, Helen, Anne Price, and Katherine Meyer. 2012. “Anti-Sexual Harassment Campaign in Egypt.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 17(4):457–75. doi: 10.17813/maiq.17.4.q756724v461359m2.
  • Rushdy, Hatem, ed. 2012. 18 Days in Tahrir: Stories from Egypt’s Revolution. Hong Kong: Haven Books Limited.
  • Schradie, Jen. 2018. “Moral Monday Is More Than a Hashtag: The Strong Ties of Social Movement Emergence in the Digital Era,” Social Media + Society 4(1):1–13. doi: 10.1177/2056305117750719.
  • Schwab, Klaus, ed. 2010. The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011. World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf.
  • Shahin, Emad El-Din. 2012. “The Egyptian Revolution: The Power of Mass Mobilization and the Spirit of Tahrir Square.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 3(1):46–69. doi: 10.1080/21520844.2012.669452.
  • Sharabi, Hisham. 1988. Neopatriarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Snow, David A., E. Burke Rochford, Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford. 1986. “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation.” American Sociological Review 51(4):464–81. doi: 10.2307/2095581.
  • Storer, Heather L., and Maria Rodriguez. 2020. “#mapping a Movement: Social Media, Feminist Hashtags, and Movement Building in the Digital Age.” Journal of Community Practice 28(2):160–76. doi: 10.1080/10705422.2020.1757541.
  • Strauss Swanson, Charlotte, and Dawn M. Szymanski. 2020. “From Pain to Power: An Exploration of Activism, the #metoo Movement, and Healing from Sexual Assault Trauma.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 67(6):653–68. doi: 10.1037/cou0000429.
  • Tilly, Charles. 2004. Social Movements 1768–2004. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
  • Tufekci, Zeynep, and Christopher Wilson. 2012. “Social Media and the Decision to Participate in Political Protest: Observations from Tahrir Square.” Journal of Communication 62(2):363–79. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01629.x.
  • USAID (U.S. Agency for International Development). 2009. “Promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment.” Accessed July 29, 2018. https://www.usaid.gov/egypt/gender-equality-and-womens-empowerment.
  • U.S. Census Bureau. 2018. “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2019.” Accessed November 20, 2018. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Monthly%20Population%20Estimates%20for%20the%20United%20States%3A%20April%201,%202010%20to%20December%201,%202018&tid=PEPPOP2019.PEPANNRES.
  • Wall, Melissa, and Sahar el Zahed. 2011. “‘I’ll Be Waiting for You Guys’: A YouTube Call to Action in the Egyptian Uprising.” International Journal of Communication 5:1333–43.
  • Wiltfang, Gregory, and Doug McAdam. 1991. “Distinguishing Cost and Risk in Sanctuary Activism.” Social Forces 69(4):987–1010. doi: 10.2307/2579299.
  • Yang, Guobin. 2016. “Narrative Agency in Hashtag Activism: The Case of #blacklivesmatter.” Media and Communication 4(4):13–17. doi: 10.17645/mac.v4i4.692.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.