Citizenship, Legal Status, and Federal Sentencing Outcomes: Examining the Moderating Effects of Age, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity

References

• Agresti, Alan, and Barbara Finlay. 1997. Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Alba, Richard, Rubén. G. Rumbaut, and Karen Marotz. 2005. “A Distorted Nation: Perceptions of Racial/Ethnic Group Sizes and Attitudes Toward Immigrants and Other Minorities.” Social Forces 84(2):901–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, Celesta A. 1991. “An Integration of Theories to Explain Judicial Discretion.” Social Problems 38(2):247–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albonetti, Celesta A. 1997. “Sentencing under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines: Effects of Offender Characteristics, Guilty Pleas, and Departures on Sentence Outcomes for Drug Offenses, 1991–1992.” Law and Society Review 31(4):789–822.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold, Carrie. L. 2007. “Racial Profiling in Immigration Enforcement: State and Local Agreements to Enforce Federal Immigration Law.” Arizona Law Review 49(113):113–42.
   Google Scholar
• Berk, Richard A. 1983. “An Introduction to Sample Selection Bias in Sociological Data.” American Sociological Review 48(3):386–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk, Richard A., and Subhash C. Ray. 1982. “Selection Biases in Sociological Data.” Social Science Research 11(4):352–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock, Hubert M. 1967. Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Blumer, Herbert. 1958. “Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position.” Pacific Sociological Review 1(1):3–7.
   Google Scholar
• Bolla, Evan W. 2006. “An Unwarranted Disparity: Granting Fast-Track Departures in Non-Fast-Track Districts.” Cardozo Law Review 28(2):895–930.
   Google Scholar
• Bosworth, Mary, and Emma Kaufman. 2011. “Foreigners in a Carceral Age: Immigration and Imprisonment in the United States.” Stanford Law and Policy Review 22(1):429–54.
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, Pauline K., and Cassia C. Spohn. 2009. “The Joint Effects of Offender Race/Ethnicity and Sex on Sentence Length Decisions in Federal Courts.” Race and Social Problems 1(4):200–17.
   Google Scholar
• Buchanan, Patrick J. 2006. State of Emergency: The Third World Invasion and Conquest of America. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bushway, Shawn, Brian D. Johnson, and Lee Ann Slocum. 2007. “Is the Magic Still There? The Use of the Heckman Two-Step Correction for Selection Bias in Criminology.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 23(2):151–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chávez, Leo R. 2008. The Latino Threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens, and the Nation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chiricos, Ted, Elizabeth K. Stupi, Brian J. Stults, and Marc Gertz. 2014. “Undocumented Immigrant Threat and Support for Social Controls.” Social Problems 61(4):673–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CNN Library. 2016. Mexico Drug War Fast Facts. Retrieved May 9, 2016 (http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/02/world/americas/mexico-drug-war-fast-facts/).
   Google Scholar
• Coutin, Susan B. 2005. “Contesting Criminality: Illegal Immigration and the Spatialization of Legality.” Theoretical Criminology 9(1):5–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demleitner, Nora V., and Jon M. Sands. 2002. “Non-citizen Offenders and Immigration Crimes: New Challenges in the Federal System.” Federal Sentencing Reporter 14(5):247–54.
   Google Scholar
• Demuth, Stephen. 2002. “The Effect of Citizenship Status on Sentencing Outcomes in Drug Cases.” Federal Sentencing Reporter 14(5):271–75.
   Google Scholar
• Engen, Rodney L., and Randy R. Gainey. 2000a. “Conceptualizing Legally Relevant Factors under Guidelines: A Reply to Ulmer.” Criminology 38(4):1245–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engen, Rodney L., and Randy R. Gainey. 2000b. “Modeling the Effects of Legally Relevant and Extralegal Factors under Sentencing Guidelines: The Rules Have Changed.” Criminology 38(4):1207–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everett, Ronald S., and Roger A. Wojtkiewicz. 2002. “Difference, Disparity, and Racial/Ethnic Bias in Federal Sentencing.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 18(2):189–211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldmeyer, Ben, and Jeffery T. Ulmer. 2011. Racial/Ethnic Threat and Federal Sentencing. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 48(2):238–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldmeyer, Ben, Patricia Y. Warren, Sonja E. Siennick, and Malisa Neptune. 2014. “Racial, Ethnic, and Immigrant Threat: Is There a New Criminal Threat on State Sentencing.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 52(1):62–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein, Judith L., and Margaret E. Peters. 2014. “Nativism or Economic Threat: Attitudes Toward Immigration during the Great Recession.” International Interactions 40(3):1–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorman, Thomas E. 2009. “A History of Fast-Track Sentencing.” Federal Sentencing Reporter 21(5):311–17.
   Google Scholar
• Grieco, Elizabeth M., Yesenia D. Acosta, G. Patricia De la Cruz, Christine Gambino, Thomas Gryn, Luke J. Larsen, Edward N. Trevelyan, and Nathan P. Walters. “The Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 2010.” Retrieved January 29, 2012 (https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acs-19.pdf).
   Google Scholar
• Hartley, Richard D., and Luisa F. Armendariz. 2011. “Border Justice? Sentencing Federal Narcotics Offenders in Southwest Border Districts: A Focus on Citizenship Status.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 27(1):43–62.
   Google Scholar
• Hartley, Richard D., and Rob Tillyer. 2012. “Defending the Homeland: Judicial Sentencing Practices for Federal Immigration Offenses.” Justice Quarterly 29(1):76–104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holleran, David, and Cassia C. Spohn. 2004. “On the Use of the Total Incarceration Variable in Sentencing Research.” Criminology 42(1):211–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). 2000. §236, 8 U.S.C. §1226.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, David, Jason T. Carmichael, and Stephanie L. Kent. 2005. “Vigilantism, Current Racial Threat, and Death Sentences.” American Sociological Review 70(4):656–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, Brian D. 2005. “Contextual Disparities in Guideline Departures: Courtroom Social Contexts, Guidelines Compliance, and Extralegal Disparities in Criminal Sentencing.” Criminology 43(3):761– 96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, Brian D., and Sara Betsinger. 2009. “Punishing the ‘Model Minority’: Asian-American Criminal Sentencing Outcomes in Federal District Courts.” Criminology 47(4):1045–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandel, William A. 2011. The U.S. Foreign-Born Population: Trends and Selected Characteristics. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
   Google Scholar
• Kautt, Paula, and Cassia C. Spohn. 2002. “Crack-ing down on black drug offenders? Testing for interactions among offenders’ race, drug type, and sentencing strategy in federal drug sentences“. Justice Quarterly 19(1):371–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, Gary, and Langche Zeng. 2001. “Explaining Rare Events in International Relations.” International Organization 55(3):693–715.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light, Michael T. 2014. “The New Face of Legal Inequality: Noncitizens and the Long-Term Trends in Sentencing Disparities across U.S. District Courts, 1992–2009.” Law and Society Review 48(2):447– 78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light, Michael T., Michael Massoglia, and Ryan D. King. 2014. “Citizenship and Punishment: The Salience of National Membership in U.S. Criminal Courts.” American Sociological Review 79(5):825–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logue, Melissa A. 2009. “The Price of Being Mexican: Sentencing Disparities between Noncitizen Mexican and Non-Mexican Latinos in the Federal Courts.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 31(4):423–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manza, Jeff, and Christopher Uggen. 2006. Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Martinez, Ramiro Jr. 2006. “Coming to America: The Impact of the New Immigration on Crime.” Pp. 1–19 in Immigration and Crime: Race, Ethnicity and Violence, edited by R. Martinez and A. Valenzuela. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Massey, Douglas S. 2009. “Racial Formation in Theory and Practice: The Case of Mexicans in the United States.” Race and Social Problems 1(1):12–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Massey, Douglas S. “Immigration and the Great Recession.” Retrieved January 29, 2012(https://web.stanford.edu/group/recessiontrends/cgibin/web/sites/all/themes/barron/pdf/Immigration_fact_sheet.pdf).
   Google Scholar
• Mauer, Marc, and Meda Chesney-Lind, eds. 2002. Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment. New York: New Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, Teresa A. 2005. “Blurring the Boundaries between Immigration and Crime Control after September 11th.” Boston College Third World Law Journal 25(1):1–43.
   Google Scholar
• Musto, David F. 1973. The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Newburger, Eric, and Thomas Gryn. “The Foreign-Born Labor Force in the United States: 2007.” Retrieved May 5, 2009 (http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/acs-10.pdf).
   Google Scholar
• Newton, Lina. 2008. Illegal, Alien, or Immigrant: The Politics of Immigration Reform. New York: NYU Press.
   Google Scholar
• Office of the Attorney General. 2003. Department Principles for Implementing an Expedited Disposition or “Fast-Track” Prosecution Program in a District. Memorandum to all United States Attorneys. From Attorney General John Ashcroft, September 22.
   Google Scholar
• Padilla v. Kentucky. 2010. Supreme Court of the United States 559 U.S. 356.
   Google Scholar
• Roman, Ediberto. 2000. “Who Exactly Is Living la Vida Loca? The Legal and Political Consequences of Latino-Latina Ethnic and Racial Stereotypes in Film and Other Media.” Journal of Gender Race and Justice 37(1):37–68.
   Google Scholar
• Sacks, Meghan, and Alissa R. Ackerman. 2012. “Bail and Sentencing: Does Pretrial Detention Lead to Harsher Punishment?” Criminal Justice Policy Review 25(1):59–77.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, Robert J. 2006. “Open Doors Don’t Invite Criminals.” New York Times, March 11.
   Google Scholar
• Sampson, Robert J. 2008. “Rethinking Immigration and Crime.” Contexts 7:28–33.
   Google Scholar
• Sayad, Abdelmalek. 2004. The Suffering of the Immigrant. Cambridge: Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, Eugene. 2015. “Candidate Donald Trump Talks Immigration, Gay Marriage and ISIS.” CNN Politics, Retrieved July 1, 2015 (http://www.cnn.com/2015/06/28/politics/donald-trump-immigration-gay-marriage-2016/).
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, Cassia C. 2000. “Race, Sex, and Pretrial Detention in Federal Court: Indirect Effects and Cumulative Disadvantage.” University of Kansas Law Review 57(1):879–901.
   Google Scholar
• Spohn, Cassia C. 2015. “Race, Crime, and Punishment in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries.” Crime and Justice 44(1):49–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, Cassia C., and Robert Fornango. 2009. “U.S. Attorneys and Substantial Assistance Departures: Testing for Inter-Prosecutor Disparity.” Criminology 47(3):813–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spohn, Cassia C., and David Holleran. 2002. “The Effect of Imprisonment on Recidivism Rates on Felony Offenders: A Focus on Drug Offenders.” Criminology 40(2):329–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, Darrell, and Stephen Demuth. 2000. “Ethnicity and Sentencing Outcomes in U.S. Federal Courts: Who Is Punished More Harshly?” American Sociological Review 65(5):705–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffensmeier, Darrell, Jeffery T. Ulmer, and John H. Kramer. 1998. “The Interaction of Race, Gender, and Age in Criminal Sentencing: The Punishment Cost of Being Young, Black, and Male.” Criminology 36(4):763–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stults, Brian J., and Eric P. Baumer. 2007. “Racial Context and Police Force Size: Evaluating the Empirical Validity of the Minority Threat Perspective.” American Journal of Sociology 113(2):507–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stumpf, Juliet. 2006. “The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime, And Sovereign Power.” American University Law Review 56(2):367–420.
   Google Scholar
• Tartaro, Christine, and Christopher M. Sedelmaier. 2009. “A Tale of Two Counties: The Impact of Pretrial Release, Race, and Ethnicity upon Sentencing Decisions.” Criminal Justice Studies 22(2):203–21.
   Google Scholar
• Ulmer, Jeffery T., and Brian Johnson. 2004. “Sentencing in Context: A Multilevel Analysis.” Criminology 42(1):137–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Sentencing Commission. MONITORING OF FEDERAL CRIMINAL SENTENCES. (2006) [Computer file]. ICPSR20120-v1. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission [producer], 2007. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2007-09-28. doi:10.3886/ICPSR20120.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Sentencing Commission. MONITORING OF FEDERAL CRIMINAL SENTENCES. (2007) [Computer file]. ICPSR22623-v1. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission [producer], 2007. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2009-06-23. doi:10.3886/ICPSR22623.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Sentencing Commission. MONITORING OF FEDERAL CRIMINAL SENTENCES. (2008) [Computer file]. ICPSR25424-v1. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission [producer], 2007. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2009-09-01. doi:10.3886/ICPSR25424.
   Google Scholar
• United States Sentencing Commission. (2010). Demographic differences in federal Sentencing practices: An update of the Booker report’s multivariate regression analysis. Washington, DC: United States Sentencing Commission.
   Google Scholar
• United States Sentencing Commission. (2012). Federal sentencing guidelines manual. St. Paul, MN: West.
   Google Scholar
• United States v. Booker. (2005). Supreme Court of the United States 543 U.S. 220.
   Google Scholar
• United States v. Borrero-Isaza, 887 F.2d 1349, 1352 (9th Cir. 1989).
   Google Scholar
• United States v. Gomez, 797 F.2d 417 (7th Cir. 1986).
   Google Scholar
• United States v. Onwuemene, 933 F.2d 650, 651 (8th Cir. 1991).
   Google Scholar
• VanNostrand, Marie, and Gena Keebler. 2009. “Pretrial Risk Assessment in the Federal Court.” Federal Probation 73(2):3–29.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Xia. 2012. “Undocumented Immigrants as Perceived Criminal Threat: A Test of the Minority Threat Perspective.” Criminology 50(3):743–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, Marian R. 2003. “The Effect of Pretrial Detention on Imprisonment Decisions.” Criminal Justice Review 28(2):299–316.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, Scott E., David C. Pyrooz, and Cassia C. Spohn. 2011. “Unraveling the Effect of Offender Citizenship Status on Federal Sentencing Outcomes.” Social Science Research 40(1):349–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, Jawjeong, and Miriam A. DeLone. 2012. “Revisiting the Normal Crime and Liberation Hypotheses: Citizenship Status and Unwarranted Disparity.” Criminal Justice Review 37(2):214–38.
   Google Scholar
• Yates, Jeff, Todd A. Collins, and Gabriel J. Chin. 2005. A War on Drugs or a War on Immigrants? Expanding the Definitions of ‘Drug Trafficking’ in Determining Aggravated Felon Status for Noncitizens.” Maryland Law Review 64(3):875–909.
   Google Scholar
• Ye Hee Lee, Michelle. 2015 “Donald Trump’s False Comments Connecting Mexican Immigrants and Crime.” Washington Post. Retrieved July 10, 2015 (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2015/07/08/donald-trumps-false-comments-connecting-mexican-immigrants-and-crime/)
   Google Scholar