High Hopes: Gender Trends in Educational Expectations for Graduate and Professional School, 1976-2019

References

• American Association of Medical Colleges. 2019. “The Majority of U.S. Medical Students are Women, New Data Show.” Retrieved February 11, 2021. (https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/press-releases/majority-us-medical-students-are-women-new-data-show).
   Google Scholar
• Andrew, Megan, and Robert M. Hauser. 2011. “Adoption? Adaptation? Evaluating the Formation of Educational Expectations.” Social Forces 90(2): 497–520. doi: 10.1093/sf/sor005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araki, Satoshi. 2020. “Educational Expansion, Skills Diffusion, and the Economic Value of Credentials and Skills.” American Sociological Review 85(1): 128–75. doi: 10.1177/0003122419897873.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aud, Susan, William Hussar, Frank Johnson, Grace Kena, Erin Roth, Eileen Manning, Xiaolei Wang, and Jijun Zhang. 2012. The Condition of Education 2012 (NCES 2012-045). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012045.pdf).
   Google Scholar
• Beutel, Ann M., Stephanie W. Burge, and B. Ann Borden. 2018. “Femininity and Choice of College Major.” Gender Issues 35(2): 113–36. doi: 10.1007/s12147-017-9195-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beutel, Ann M., Stephanie W. Burge, and B. Ann Borden. 2019. “Masculinity and Men’s Choice of College Major.” Gender Issues 36(4): 374–91. doi: 10.1007/s12147-019-09236-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair-Loy, Mary. 2003. Competing Devotions: Career and Family Among Women Executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bozick, Robert, Karl Alexander, Doris Entwisle, Susan Dauber, and Kerri Kerr. 2010. “Framing the Future: Revisiting the Place of Educational Expectations in Status Attainment.” Social Forces 88(5): 2027–52. doi: 10.1353/sof.2010.0033.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchmann, Claudia, and Thomas A. DiPrete. 2006. “The Growing Female Advantage in College Completion: The Role of Family Background and Academic Achievement.” American Sociological Review 71(4): 515–41. doi: 10.1177/000312240607100401.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carolan, Brian V. 2017. “Assessing the Adaptation of Adolescents’ Educational Expectations: Variations by Gender.” Social Psychology of Education 20(2): 237–57. doi: 10.1007/s11218-017-9377-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cech, Erin A. 2016. “Mechanism or Myth? Family Plans and the Reproduction of Occupational Gender Segregation.” Gender & Society 30(2): 265–88. doi: 10.1177/0891243215608798.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, Maria, and Karen Bradley. 2002. “Equal but Separate? A Cross-National Study of Sex Segregation in Higher Education.” American Sociological Review 67(4): 573–99. doi: 10.2307/3088946.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, Maria, and Karen Bradley. 2009. “Indulging Our Gendered Selves? Sex Segregation by Field of Study in 44 Countries.” American Journal of Sociology 114(4): 924–76. doi: 10.1086/595942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conger, Dylan, and Mark C. Long. 2010. “Why are Men Falling Behind? Gender Gaps in College Performance and Persistence.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 627(1): 184–214. doi: 10.1177/0002716209348751.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotter, David, Joan M. Hermsen, and Reeve Vanneman. 2011. “The End of the Gender Revolution? Gender Role Attitudes from 1977 to 2008.” American Journal of Sociology 117(1): 259–89. doi: 10.1086/658853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, Sharrika D., Catherine Amelink, Joan B. Hirt, and Yasuo Miyazaki. 2012. “Women’s Educational Opportunities: Factors That Influence Their Graduate School Aspirations.” NAPSA Journal About Women in Higher Education 5(2): 141–65. doi: 10.1515/njawhe-2012-1111.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, Shannon N., and Lisa D. Pearce. 2007. “Adolescents’ Work-Family Gender Ideologies and Educational Expectations.” Sociological Perspectives 50(2): 249–71. doi: 10.1525/sop.2007.50.2.249.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denning, Jeffrey T., Eric R. Eide, Kevin J. Mumford, Richard W. Patterson, and Merrill Warnick. 2022. “Why Have College Completion Rates Increased?” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 14(3): 1–29. doi: 10.1257/app.20200525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dernberger, Brittany N., and Joanna R. Pepin. 2020. “Gender Flexibility, but Not Equality: Young Adults’ Division of Labor Preferences.” Sociological Science 7: 36–56. doi: 10.15195/v7.a2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiPrete, Thomas A., and Claudia Buchmann. 2013. The Rise of Women: The Growing Gender Gap in Education and What It Means for American Schools. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Dochow, Stephan, and Sebastian Neumeyer. 2021. “An Investigation of the Causal Effect of Educational Expectations on School Performance. Behavioral Consequences, Time-Stable Confounding, or Reciprocal Causality?” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 71: 100579. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100579.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domina, Thurston, AnneMarie Conley, and George Farkas. 2011. “The Link Between Educational Expectations and Effort in the College-For-All Era.” Sociology of Education 84(2): 93–112. doi: 10.1177/1941406411401808.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles (Parsons), Jacquelynne., Terry F. Adler, Robert Futterman, Susan B. Goff, Caroline M. Kaczala, Judith L Meece, and Carol Midgley. 1983. “Expectations, Values, and Academic Behaviors.” Pp. 75–146 in Achievement and Achievement Motives: Psychological and Sociological Approaches, edited by J. T. Spence. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.
   Google Scholar
• Eccles, Jacquelynne S., and Allan Wigfield. 2020. “From Expectancy-Value Theory to Situated Expectancy-Value Theory: A Developmental, Social Cognitive, and Sociocultural Perspective on Motivation.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 61: 101859. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• England, Paula. 2010. “The Gender Revolution: Uneven and Stalled.” Gender & Society 24(2): 149–66. doi: 10.1177/0891243210361475.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• England, Paula, Andrew Levine, and Emma Mishel. 2020. “Progress Toward Gender Equality in the United States Has Slowed or Stalled.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(13): 6990–97. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1918891117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• England, Paula, and Su Li. 2006. “Desegregation Stalled: The Changing Gender Composition of College Majors, 1971-2002.” Gender & Society 20(5): 657–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, Debbie. 1998. “Real Boys Don’t Work: ’Underachievement,’ Masculinity and the Harassment of ‘Sissies.” Pp. 96–107 in Failing Boys?: Issues in Gender and Achievement, edited by D. Epstein, J. Elwood, V. Hey, and , and J. Maw. Buckingham, England: Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fan, Weihua. 2011. “Social Influences, School Motivation and Gender Differences: An Application of the Expectancy-Value Theory.” Educational Psychology 31(2): 157–75. doi: 10.1080/01443410.2010.536525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishman, Samuel H. 2019. “Do Plans Really Matter?: Re-Assessing the Role of Adolescent Expectations in Educational Attainment.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 62: 100407. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2019.05.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishman, Samuel H. 2022. “College-For-Some or College-For-All?: Inequality in the Relationship Between Educational Expectations and Educational Attainment Across Academic Achievement.” Social Science Research 107: 102747. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2022.102747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortin, Nicole M., Philip Oreopoulos, and Shelley Phipps. 2015. “Leaving Boys Behind: Gender Disparities in High Academic Achievement.” The Journal of Human Resources 50(3): 549–79. doi: 10.3368/jhr.50.3.549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freelin, Brittany N., and Jeremy Staff. 2021. “Uncertain Adolescent Educational Expectations and College Matriculation in the Wake of the Great Recession.” The Sociological Quarterly 62(4): 734–62. doi: 10.1080/00380253.2020.1816862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frye, Margaret. 2012. “Bright Futures in Malawi’s New Dawn: Educational Aspirations as Assertions of Identity.” American Journal of Sociology 117(6): 1565–624. doi: 10.1086/664542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garvey, Jason C., Jeni Hart, Amy Scott Metcalfe, and Jennifer Fellabaum-Toston. 2019. “Methodological Troubles with Gender and Sex in Higher Education Research.” The Review of Higher Education 43(1): 1–24. doi: 10.1353/rhe.2019.0088.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerson, Kathleen. 2009. The Unfinished Revolution: Coming of Age in a New Era of Gender, Work, and Family. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goyette, Kimberly A. 2008. “College for Some to College for All: Social Background, Occupational Expectations, and Educational Expectations Over Time.” Social Science Research 37(2): 461–84. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.02.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, Sandra L. 1994. “Lost Talent: Unrealized Educational Aspirations and Expectations Among U.S. Youths.” Sociology of Education 67(3): 159–83. doi: 10.2307/2112789.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, Melanie. 2022a. “College Enrollment & Student Demographic Statistics.” EducationData.org. Retrieved November 23, 2022. (https://educationdata.org/college-enrollment-statistics).
   Google Scholar
• Hanson, Melanie. 2022b. “College Graduation Statistics.” EducationData.org. Retrieved November 23, 2022. (https://educationdata.org/number-of-college-graduates).
   Google Scholar
• Hayford, Sarah R., and Jessica Halliday Hardie. 2021. “Gender Differences in Adolescents’ Work and Family Orientations in the United States.” The Sociological Quarterly 62(3): 488–509. doi: 10.1080/00380253.2020.1775529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz, Jonathan. 2018. “Relative Education and the Advantage of a College Degree.” American Sociological Review 83(4): 771–801. doi: 10.1177/0003122418785371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, Brian A., and Tamara Wilder. 2010. “Educational Expectations and Attainment.” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper Series, Working Paper 15683.
   Google Scholar
• Jerrim, John. 2014. “The Unrealistic Educational Expectations of High School Pupils: Is America Exceptional?” The Sociological Quarterly 55(1): 196–231. doi: 10.1111/tsq.12049.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, Lloyd D., Richard A. Miech, Patrick M. O’Malley, Jerald G. Bachman, John E. Schulenberg, and Megan E. Patrick. 2020. Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2019: Overview, Key Findings on Adolescent Drug Use. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.
   Google Scholar
• Karlson, Kristian Bernt. 2015. “Expectations on Track? High School Tracking and Adolescent Educational Expectations.” Social Forces 94(1): 115–41. doi: 10.1093/sf/sov006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlson, Kristian Bernt. 2019. “Expectation Formation for All? Group Differences in Student Response to Signals About Academic Performance.” The Sociological Quarterly 60(4): 716–37. doi: 10.1080/00380253.2019.1580549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerckhoff, Alan C. 1976. “The Status Attainment Process: Socialization or Allocation?” Social Forces 55(2): 368–81. doi: 10.2307/2576228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langenkamp, Amy G., and Dara Shifrer. 2018. “Family Legacy or Family Pioneer? Social Class Differences in the Way Adolescents Construct College-Going.” Journal of Adolescent Research 33(1): 58–89. doi: 10.1177/0743558416684951.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, Scott J., and Sarah A. Mustillo. 2021. “Using Predictions and Marginal Effects to Compare Groups in Regression Models for Binary Outcomes.” Sociological Methods & Research 50(3): 1284–320. doi: 10.1177/0049124118799374.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundberg, Shelly. 2020. “Educational Gender Gaps.” Southern Economic Journal 87(2): 416–39. doi: 10.1002/soej.12460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marini, Margaret Mooney, and Ellen Greenberger. 1978. “Sex Differences in Educational Aspirations and Expectations.” American Educational Research Journal 15(1): 67–79. doi: 10.3102/00028312015001067.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, Anne, and Margo Gardner. 2016. “College Expectations for All? The Early Adult Outcomes of Low-Achieving Adolescents Who Expect to Earn a Bachelor’s Degree.” Applied Developmental Science 20(2): 108–20. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2015.1080596.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mello, Zena R. 2008. “Gender Variation in Developmental Trajectories of Educational and Occupational Expectations and Attainment from Adolescence to Adulthood.” Developmental Psychology 44(4): 1069–80. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mize, Trenton D. 2019. “Best Practices for Estimating, Interpreting, and Presenting Nonlinear Interaction Effects.” Sociological Science 6: 81–117. doi: 10.15195/v6.a4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, Stephen L. 2004. “Methodologist as Arbitrator: Five Models for Black-White Differences in the Causal Effect of Expectations on Attainment.” Sociological Methods & Research 33(1): 3–53. doi: 10.1177/0049124104263657.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, Stephen L. 2005. On the Edge of Commitment: Educational Attainment and Race in the United States. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, Edward W. 2012. Learning the Hard Way: Masculinity, Place, and the Gender Gap in Education. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mortimer, Jeylan T. 2022. “Agency, Linked Lives and Historical Time: Evidence from the Longitudinal Three-Generation Youth Development Study.” Longitudinal and Life Course Studies 13(2): 195–216. doi: 10.1332/175795921X16398283564306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen, Ann L., Kimberly A. Goyette, and Joseph A. Soares. 2003. “Who Goes to Graduate School? Social and Academic Correlates of Educational Continuation After College.” Sociology of Education 76(2): 143–69. doi: 10.2307/3090274.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Assessment of Educational Progress. 2022. “2019 NAEP High School Transcript Study (HSTS) Results.” (https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/hstsreport/#coursetaking_1_0_el).
   Google Scholar
• Ortiz-Gervasi, Luis. 2020. “What Shape Great Expectations? Gender and Social-Origin Effects on Expectation of University Graduation.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 69: 100527. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100527.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascarella, Ernest T., Gregory C. Wolniak, Christopher T. Pierson, and Lamont A. Flowers. 2004. “The Role of Race in the Development of Plans for a Graduate Degree.” The Review of Higher Education 27(3): 299–320. doi: 10.1353/rhe.2004.0006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe, C. J. 2007. Dude, You’re a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pattison, Evangeleen, Eric Grodsky, and Chandra Muller. 2013. “Is the Sky Falling? Grade Inflation and the Signaling Power of Grades.” Educational Researcher 42(5): 259–65. doi: 10.3102/0013189X13481382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pepin, Joanna R., and David A. Cotter. 2018. “Separating Spheres? Diverging Trends in Youth’s Gender Attitudes About Work and Family.” Journal of Marriage and Family 80(1): 7–24. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeffer, Fabian T., and Florian R. Hertel. 2015. “How Has Educational Expansion Shaped Social Mobility Trends in the United States?” Social Forces 94(1): 143–80. doi: 10.1093/sf/sov045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pisarcik, Ian. 2019. “Women Outnumber Men in Law School Classrooms for Third Year in a Row, but Statistics Don’t Tell the Full Story.” Jurist: Legal News & Commentary, March 5. (https://www.jurist.org/commentary/2019/03/pisarcik-women-outnumber-men-in-law-school/).
   Google Scholar
• Quadlin, Natasha. 2020. “From Major Preferences to Major Choices: Gender and Logics of Major Choice.” Sociology of Education 93(2): 91–109. doi: 10.1177/0038040719887971.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, John R., and Chardie L. Baird. 2010. “Is There a Downside to Shooting for the Stars? Unrealized Educational Expectations and Symptoms of Depression.” American Sociological Review 75(1): 151–72. doi: 10.1177/0003122409357064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, John R., and Stephanie Woodham Burge. 2008. “Educational Expectations and the Rise in Women’s Post-Secondary Attainments.” Social Science Research 37(2): 485–99. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.09.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, John R., and Monica Kirkpatrick Johnson. 2011. “Change in the Stratification of Educational Expectations and Their Realization.” Social Forces 90(1): 85–109. doi: 10.1093/sf/90.1.85.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, John, Michael Stewart, Ryan MacDonald, and Lacey Sischo. 2006. “Have Adolescents Become Too Ambitious? High School Seniors’ Educational and Occupational Plans, 1976 to 2000.” Social Problems 53(2): 186–206. doi: 10.1525/sp.2006.53.2.186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum, James E. 2001. Beyond College for All: Career Paths for the Forgotten Half. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Salazar, Leire, Héctor Cebolla-Boado, and Jonas Radl. 2020. “Educational Expectations in the Great Recession: Has the Impact of Family Background Become Stronger?” Socio-Economic Review 18(2): 465–91. doi: 10.1093/ser/mwy046.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayer, Liana C. 2016. “Trends in Women’s and Men’s Time Use, 1965–2012: Back to the Future?” Pp. 43–77 in Gender and Couple Relationships, edited by S. M. McHale, V. King, J. Van Hook, and A. Booth. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Scarborough, William J., Ray Sin, and Barbara Risman. 2019. “Attitudes and the Stalled Gender Revolution: Egalitarianism, Traditionalism, and Ambivalence from 1977 to 2016.” Gender & Society 33(2): 173–200. doi: 10.1177/0891243218809604.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, Barbara L., and David Stevenson. 1999. The Ambitious Generation: America’s Teenagers, Motivated but Directionless. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sewell, William H., Archibald O. Haller, and George W. Ohlendorf. 1970. “The Educational and Occupational Status Attainment Process: Replication and Revision.” American Sociological Review 35(6): 1014–27. doi: 10.2307/2093379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sewell, William H., Archibald O. Haller, and Alejandro Portes. 1969. “The Educational and Early Occupational Attainment Process.” American Sociological Review 34(1): 82–92. doi: 10.2307/2092789.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shu, Xiaoling, and Kelsey D. Meagher. 2018. “Beyond the Stalled Gender Revolution: Historical and Cohort Dynamics in Gender Attitudes from 1977 to 2016.” Social Forces 96(3): 1243–74. doi: 10.1093/sf/sox090.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smock, Pamela J., and Christine R. Schwartz. 2020. “The Demography of Families: A Review of Patterns and Change.” Journal of Marriage and Family 82(1): 9–34. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westbrook, Laurel, and Aliya Saperstein. 2015. “New Categories are Not Enough: Rethinking the Measurement of Sex and Gender in Social Surveys.” Gender & Society 29(4): 534–60. doi: 10.1177/0891243215584758.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yavorsky, Jill E., and Claudia Buchmann. 2019. “Gender Typicality and Academic Achievement Among American High School Students.” Sociological Science 6: 661–83. doi: 10.15195/v6.a25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar