1,192
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

A technical protocol for using ground penetrating radar and electrical resistivity tomography in the search for covert graves

, , , , &
Received 09 Jun 2023, Accepted 10 Aug 2023, Published online: 04 Sep 2023

References

  • Keatley D, O’Donnell C, Chapman B, Clarke DD. The psycho-criminology of burial sites: developing the winthropping method for locating clandestine burial sites. J Police Criminal Psychol. 2021;37:91–100. doi:10.1007/s11896-11021-09457-11898.
  • Keatley D, O’Donnell C. Winthropping as an investigative tool in clandestine grave discovery and psychological profiling. J Police Criminal Psychol. 2023:1–13.
  • Ferguson C, Pooley K. Australian no-body homicides: exploring common features of solved cases. J Forensic Leg Med. 2019;66:70–78. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2019.1006.1007.
  • Ferguson C, Pooley K. Comparing solved and unsolved no-body homicides in Australia: an exploratory analysis. Homicide Stud. 2019;23(4):381–403. doi:10.1177/1088767919852381.
  • Lenferink LI, de Keijser J, Wessel I, Boelen PA. Cognitive-behavioral correlates of psychological symptoms among relatives of missing persons. Int J Cogn Ther. 2018;11:311–324. doi:10.1007/s41811-018-0024-y.
  • Lenferink LI, de Keijser J, Wessel I, de Vries D, Boelen PA. Toward a better understanding of psychological symptoms in people confronted with the disappearance of a loved one: a systematic review. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2019;20(3):287–302. doi:10.1177/1524838017699602.
  • Hinkes M. Forensic anthropology in cold cases. In: Walton RH, editor. Forensic anthropology in cold cases. Cold case homicides: practical investigative techniques. Boca Raton (Florida): CRC Press; 2017. p. 381–400.
  • Larson DO, Vass AA, Wise M. Advanced scientific methods and procedures in the forensic investigation of clandestine graves. J Contemp Crim Justice. 2011;27(2):149–182. doi:10.1177/1043986211405885.
  • Rebmann A, David E, Sorg MH . Cadaver dog handbook: forensic training and tactics for the recovery of human remains. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2000.
  • Kalacska M, Bell LS. Remote sensing as a tool for the detection of clandestine mass graves. Canadian Soc Forensic Sci J. 2006;39(1):1–13. doi:10.1080/00085030.2006.10757132.
  • Donnelly L, Harrison M. Geomorphological and geoforensic interpretation of maps, aerial imagery, conditions of diggability and the colour-coded rag prioritization system in searches for criminal burials. Geol Soc London Spec Publ. 2013;384(1):173–194. doi:10.1144/SP384.10.
  • Corcoran KA, Mundorff AZ, White DA, Emch WL. A novel application of terrestrial lidar to characterize elevation change at human grave surfaces in support of narrowing down possible unmarked grave locations. Forensic Sci Int. 2018;289:320–328. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.1005.1038.
  • Berezowski V, Moffat I, Shendryk Y, MacGregor D, Ellis J, Mallett X. A multidisciplinary approach to locating clandestine gravesites in cold cases: combining geographic profiling, lidar, and near surface geophysics. Forensic Sci Int. 2022;5:100281. doi:10.101016/j.fsisyn.102022.100281.
  • Rocke B, Ruffell A. Detection of single burials using multispectral drone data: three case studies. Forensic Sci. 2022;2(1):72–87. doi:10.3390/forensicsci2010006.
  • Pensieri MG, Garau M, Barone PM. Drones as an integral part of remote sensing technologies to help missing people. Drones. 2020;4(2):15.
  • Alawadhi A, Eliopoulos C, Bezombes F. The detection of clandestine graves in an arid environment using thermal imaging deployed from an unmanned aerial vehicle. J Forensic Sci. 2023;68:1286–1291. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.15280.
  • Parrott E, Panter H, Morrissey J, Bezombes F. A low cost approach to disturbed soil detection using low altitude digital imagery from an unmanned aerial vehicle. Drones. 2019;3(2):50. doi:10.3390/drones3020050.
  • Evers R, Masters P. The application of low-altitude near-infrared aerial photography for detecting clandestine burials using a uav and low-cost unmodified digital camera. Forensic Sci Int. 2018;289:408–418. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.1006.1020.
  • Berezowski V, Mallett X, Ellis J, Moffat I. Using ground penetrating radar and resistivity methods to locate unmarked graves: a review. Remote Sens. 2021;13(15):2880. doi:10.3390/rs13152880.
  • Barone PM, Matsentidi D, Mollard A, Kulengowska N, Mistry M. Mapping decomposition: a preliminary study of non-destructive detection of simulated body fluids in the shallow subsurface. Forensic Sci. 2022;2(4):620–634. doi:10.3390/forensicsci2040046.
  • Donnelly L, Harrison M. Geoforensic search strategy (gss): ground searches related to homicide graves, counter-terrorism and serious and organized crime. In: A Guide to Forensic Geology; 2021. p. 21–85.
  • Dupras TL, Schultz JJ, Wheeler SM, Williams LJ. Forensic recovery of human remains: archaeological approaches. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2012.
  • Pringle JK, Jervis J, Cassella JP, Cassidy NJ. Time‐lapse geophysical investigations over a simulated urban clandestine grave. J Forensic Sci. 2008;53(6):1405–1416. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2008.00884.x.
  • Pringle JK, Stimpson IG, Wisniewski KD, Heaton V, Davenward B, Mirosch N, Spencer F, Jervis JR. Geophysical monitoring of simulated homicide burials for forensic investigations. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):1–12. doi:10.1038/s41598-41020-64262-41593.
  • Killam EW. The detection of human remains. Springfield (IL): Charles C Thomas Publisher; 2004.
  • Skinner M, Alempijevic D, Djuric-Srejic M. Guidelines for international forensic bio-archaeology monitors of mass grave exhumations. Forensic Sci Int. 2003;134(2–3):81–92. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00124-5.
  • Schultz JJ. Using ground-penetrating radar to locate clandestine graves of homicide victims: forming forensic archaeology partnerships with law enforcement. Homicide Stud. 2007;11(1):15–29. doi:10.1177/1088767906296234.
  • Schultz JJ, Collins ME, Falsetti AB. Sequential monitoring of burials containing large pig cadavers using ground‐penetrating radar. J Forensic Sci. 2006;51(3):607–616. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00129.x.
  • Damiata BN, Steinberg JM, Bolender DJ, Zoëga G. Imaging skeletal remains with ground-penetrating radar: comparative results over two graves from viking age and medieval churchyards on the stóra-seyla farm, northern Iceland. J Archaeol Sci. 2013;40(1):268–278. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.06.031.
  • Schultz JJ. Sequential monitoring of burials containing small pig cadavers using ground penetrating radar. J Forensic Sci. 2008;53(2):279–287. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2008.00665.x.
  • Pringle JK, Jervis JR, Roberts D, Dick HC, Wisniewski KD, Cassidy NJ, Cassella JP. Long‐term geophysical monitoring of simulated clandestine graves using electrical and ground penetrating radar methods: 4–6 years after burial. J Forensic Sci. 2016;61(2):309–321. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.13009.
  • Pringle JK, Jervis JR, Hansen JD, Jones GM, Cassidy NJ, Cassella JP. Geophysical monitoring of simulated clandestine graves using electrical and ground‐penetrating radar methods: 0–3 years after burial. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(6):1467–1486. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02151.x.
  • Schultz JJ, Martin MM. Controlled gpr grave research: comparison of reflection profiles between 500 and 250 mhz antennae. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;209(1–3):64–69. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.12.012.
  • Moffat I. Locating graves with geophysics. Best Pract Geoinf Technol Mapping Archaeolandscapes. 2015:45–53.
  • Bristow CS, Jol HM. Ground penetrating radar in sediments. Bath (UK): Geological Society of London; 2003.
  • Ruffell A, McCabe A, Donnelly C, Sloan B. Location and assessment of an historic (150–160 years old) mass grave using geographic and ground penetrating radar investigation, nw Ireland. J Forensic Sci. 2009;54(2):382–394. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2008.00978.x.
  • Pringle J, Ruffell A, Jervis J, Donnelly L, McKinley J, Hansen J, Morgan R, Pirrie D, Harrison M. The use of geoscience methods for terrestrial forensic searches. Earth-Sci Rev. 2012;114(1–2):108–123. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.05.006.
  • Buck S. Searching for graves using geophysical technology: field tests with ground penetrating radar, magnetometry, and electrical resistivity. J Forensic Sci. 2003;48(1):1–7. doi:10.1520/JFS2002165.
  • Conyers LB . Ground-penetrating radar for archaeology. 3rd ed. Lanham (MD): Alta Mira Press. Geophysical methods for archaeology; 2013.
  • Davenport GC. Remote sensing applications in forensic investigations. Hist Archaeol. 2001;35(1):87–100. doi:10.1007/BF03374530.
  • Hammon III WS, McMechan GA, Zeng X. Forensic gpr: finite-difference simulations of responses from buried human remains. J Appl Geophys. 2000;45(3):171–186. doi:10.1016/S0926-9851(00)00027-6.
  • Loke M, Chambers J, Rucker D, Kuras O, Wilkinson P. Recent developments in the direct-current geoelectrical imaging method. J Appl Geophys. 2013;95:135–156.
  • Schmidt A . Earth resistance for archaeologists. Lanham (MD): AltaMira Press. Geophysical methods for archaeology;2013.
  • Dahlin T, Zhou B. A numerical comparison of 2d resistivity imaging with 10 electrode arrays. Geophys Prospect. 2004;52(5):379–398. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2478.2004.00423.x.
  • Cavalcanti MM, Rocha MP, Blum MLB, Borges WR. The forensic geophysical controlled research site of the university of Brasilia, Brazil: results from methods gpr and electrical resistivity tomography. Forensic Sci Int. 2018;293(101):e101–101. e121. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.09.033.
  • Doro KO, Emmanuel ED, Adebayo MB, Bank C-G, Wescott DJ, Mickleburgh HL. Time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography imaging of buried human remains in simulated mass and individual graves. Front Environ Sci. 2022;10:501. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2022.882496.
  • Pringle JK, Jervis JR. Electrical resistivity survey to search for a recent clandestine burial of a homicide victim, uk. Forensic Sci Int. 2010;202(1–3):e1–e7. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.1004.1023.
  • Barone PM, Di Maggio RM. Forensic geophysics: ground penetrating radar (gpr) techniques and missing persons investigations. Forensic Sci Res. 2019;4(4):337–340. doi:10.1080/20961790.20962019.21675353.
  • Novo A, Lorenzo H, Rial FI, Solla M. 3d gpr in forensics: finding a clandestine grave in a mountainous environment. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;204(1–3):134–138. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.1005.1019.
  • Billinger MS. Utilizing ground penetrating radar for the location of a potential human burial under concrete. Canadian Soc Forensic Sci J. 2009;42(3):200–209. doi:10.1080/00085030.00082009.10757607.
  • Pringle JK, Ruffell A, Wisniewski KD, Davenward B, Heaton V, Hobson L. Historic child homicide burial search in rural woodland. Forensic Sci Int. 2023:100324.
  • Fernández-Álvarez J-P, Rubio-Melendi D, Martínez-Velasco A, Pringle JK, Aguilera H-D. Discovery of a mass grave from the spanish civil war using ground penetrating radar and forensic archaeology. Forensic Sci Int. 2016;267:e10–e17. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.1005.1040.
  • Moffat I. How we’re developing underground mapping technologies - lessons from the Beaumont case. Flinders University.
  • Molina CM, Wisniewski KD, Drake J, Baena A, Guatame A, Pringle JK. Testing application of geographical information systems, forensic geomorphology and electrical resistivity tomography to investigate clandestine grave sites in Colombia, South America. J Forensic Sci. 2020;65(1):266–273. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.14168.
  • Jervis JR, Pringle JK, Tuckwell GW. Time-lapse resistivity surveys over simulated clandestine graves. Forensic Sci Int. 2009;192(1–3):7–13. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.1007.1001.
  • Jervis JR, Pringle JK, Cassella JP, Tuckwell G. Using soil and groundwater data to understand resistivity surveys over a simulated clandestine grave. In: Criminal and environmental soil forensics. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2009. p. 271–284.
  • Hanssens D, Van De Vijver E, Waegeman W, Everett ME, Moffat I, Sarris A, De Smedt P. Ambient temperature and relative humidity–based drift correction in frequency domain electromagnetics using machine learning. Near Surf Geophys. 2021;19(5):541–556. doi:10.1002/nsg.12160.
  • Ruffell A, Rocke B, Powell N. Geoforensic search to crime scene: remote sensing, geophysics, and dogs. J Forensic Sci. 2023;68:1379–1385. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.15293.