Effectiveness of spelling interventions for learners with dyslexia: A meta-analysis and systematic review

References

• Abbott, S. P., & Berninger, V. W. (1999). It's never too late to remediate: Teaching word recognition to students with reading disabilities in grades 4–7. Annals of Dyslexia, 49(1), 221–250. doi:10.1007/s11881-999-0025-x
   Google Scholar
• *Arnbak, E., & Elbro, C. (2000). The effects of morphological awareness training on the reading and spelling skills of young dyslexics. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44(3), 229–251. doi:10.1080/00313830050154485
   Google Scholar
• Baayen, R. H., Piepenbrock, R., & Gulikers, L. (1995). The CELEX Lexical Database. Release 2 (CD-ROM): Linguistic Data Consortium, University of Pennsylvania.
   Google Scholar
• Berninger, V. W., Lee, Y.-L., Abbott, R. D., & Breznitz, Z. (2013). Teaching children with dyslexia to spell in a reading-writers’ workshop. Annals of Dyslexia, 63(1), 1–24. doi:10.1007/s11881-011-0054-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berninger, V. W., & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower’s model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, 2, 57–81.
   Google Scholar
• Berninger, V. W., Winn, W. D., Stock, P., Abbott, R. D., Eschen, K., Lin, S.-J., … Nagy, W. (2008). Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 21(1–2), 95–129. doi:10.1007/s11145-007-9066-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Blachman, B. A., Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Murray, M. S., Munger, K. A., & Vaughn, M. G. (2014). Intensive reading remediation in grade 2 or 3: Are there effects a decade later? Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 46. doi:10.1037/a0033663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borgwaldt, S. R., Hellwig, F. M., & De Groot, A. (2004). Word-initial entropy in five languages: Letter to sound, and sound to letter. Written Language and Literacy, 7(2), 165–184. doi:10.1075/wll.7.2.03bor
   Google Scholar
• Borgwaldt, S. R., Hellwig, F. M., & De Groot, A. M. (2005). Onset entropy matters – Letter-to-phoneme mappings in seven languages. Reading and Writing, 18(3), 211–229. doi:10.1007/s11145-005-3001-9
   Google Scholar
• Bosman, A. M., & Van Orden, G. C. (1997). Why spelling is more difficult than reading. Learning to Spell: Research, Theory, and Practice across Languages, 10, 173–194.
   Google Scholar
• Bowers, J. S., & Bowers, P. N. (2017). Beyond phonics: The case for teaching children the logic of the English spelling system. Educational Psychologist, 52(2), 124–141. doi:10.1080/00461520.2017.1288571
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers, J. S., & Bowers, P. N. (2018a). The importance of correctly characterising the English spelling system when devising and evaluating methods of reading instruction: Comment on Taylor, Davis, and Rastle (2017). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(7), 1497. 1747021818759477. doi:10.1177/1747021818759477
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers, J. S., & Bowers, P. N. (2018b). There is no evidence to support the hypothesis that systematic phonics should precede morphological instruction: Response to Rastle and colleagues. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/mvdqr
   Google Scholar
• Bus, A. G., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1999). Phonological awareness and early reading: A meta-analysis of experimental training studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 403–414. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoon, M. B. (2005). Effects of a Peer-Mediated phonological skill and reading comprehension program on reading skill acquisition for middle school students with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(5), 424–433. doi:10.1177/00222194050380050501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Calhoon, M. B., Sandow, A., & Hunter, C. V. (2010). Reorganizing the instructional reading components: Could there be a better way to design remedial reading programs to maximize middle school students with reading disabilities’ response to treatment? Annals of Dyslexia, 60(1), 57–85. doi:10.1007/s11881-009-0033-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caravolas, M. (2004). Spelling development in alphabetic writing systems: A cross-linguistic perspective. European Psychologist, 9(1), 3–14. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.9.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caravolas, M. (2005). Learning to spell in different languages: How orthographic variables might affect early literacy. In R. M. Joshi & P. G. Aaron (Eds.), Handbook of orthography and literacy (pp. 497–511). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Carlisle, J. F. (2003). Morphology matters in learning to read: A commentary. Reading Psychology, 24(3–4), 291–322. doi:10.1080/02702710390227369
   Google Scholar
• Carlisle, J. F., McBride-Chang, C., Nagy, W., & Nunes, T. (2010). Effects of instruction in morphological awareness on literacy achievement: An integrative review. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(4), 464–487. doi:10.1598/RRQ.45.4.5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, E., Schönbrodt, F., Gervais, W. M., & Hilgard, J. (2018). Correcting for bias in psychology: A comparison of meta-analytic methods. Retrieved from https://osf.io/rf3ys/.
   Google Scholar
• Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi:10.1177/1529100618772271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37–46. doi:10.1177/001316446002000104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Corvacho del Toro, I. (2016). Zur qualitativen Rechtschreibfehleranalyse und einer schriftsystematischen lernförderlichen Behandlung der Rechtschreibstörung. Zeitschrift Für Kinder- Und Jugendpsychiatrie Und Psychotherapie, 44(5), 397–408. doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Darch, C., Eaves, R. C., Crowe, D. A., Simmons, K., & Conniff, A. (2006). Teaching spelling to students with learning disabilities: A comparison of rule-based strategies versus traditional instruction. Journal of Direct Instruction, 6(1), 1–16. doi:10.2307/1511340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Re, A. (2013). compute.es: Compute effect sizes (R package version, 0.2-2).
   Google Scholar
• Dymock, S., & Nicholson, T. (2017). To what extent does children’s spelling improve as a result of learning words with the look, say, cover, write, check, fix strategy compared with phonological spelling strategies? Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 22(2), 171–187. doi:10.1080/19404158.2017.1398766
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ecalle, J., Magnan, A., Bouchafa, H., & Gombert, J. E. (2009). Computer-based training with ortho-phonological units in dyslexic children: New investigations. Dyslexia, 15(3), 218–238. doi:10.1002/dys.v15:310.1002/dys.373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634. doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C. (1987). Learning to read and spell words. Journal of Reading Behavior, 19(1), 5–31. doi:10.1080/10862968709547585
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C. (2000). Learning to read and learning to spell: Two sides of a coin. Topics in Language Disorders, 20(3), 19–36. doi:10.1097/00011363-200020030-00005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C. (2005). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook. Blackwell Publishing. doi:10.1002/9780470757642.ch8
   Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21. doi:10.1080/10888438.2013.819356
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. doi:10.3102/00346543071003393
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. doi:10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ehri, L. C., Satlow, E., & Gaskins, I. (2009). Grapho-phonemic enrichment strengthens keyword analogy instruction for struggling young readers. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 25(2–3), 162–191. doi:10.1080/10573560802683549
   Google Scholar
• *Faber, G. (2005). Systematische Rechtschreibförderung mit algorithmischen und selbstinstruktiven Lernhilfen: Die Leistungen von konzeptgemäß trainierten und untrainierten Schülern im Vergleich. Heilpädagogische Forschung, 42(3), 129–144.
   Google Scholar
• *Fasting, R. B., & Halaas Lyster, S.-A. (2005). The effects of computer technology in assisting the development of literacy in young struggling readers and spellers. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 20(1), 21–40. doi:10.1080/0885625042000319061
   Google Scholar
• *Ferraz, E., dos Santos Gonçalves, T., Freire, T., Mattar, T. D L. F., Lamônica, D. A. C., Maximino, L. P., & Crenitte, P. A. P. (2018). Effects of a phonological reading and writing remediation program in students with dyslexia: Intervention for specific learning disabilities. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 70(2), 59–73. doi:10.1159/000489091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, Z., & Tipton, E. (2015). Robumeta: Robust variance meta-regression (R package version 1.6).
   Google Scholar
• Frith, U. (1980). Unexpected spelling problems. In U. Frith (Ed.), Cognitive processes in spelling (pp. 495–515). London, UK: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K. Patterson, J. Marshall, & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia: Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading (pp. 301–330). London, UK: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Galuschka, K., Ise, E., Krick, K., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Effectiveness of treatment approaches for children and adolescents with reading disabilities: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One, 9(2), e89900. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelman, A., & Carlin, J. (2014). Beyond power calculations assessing Type S (Sign) and Type M (Magnitude) errors. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(6), 641–651. doi:10.1177/1745691614551642
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelman, A., & Loken, E. (2014). The statistical crisis in science: Data-dependent analysis – A “garden of forking paths” – Explains why many statistically significant comparisons don't hold up. American Scientist, 102(6), 460–465.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Given, B. K., Wasserman, J. D., Chari, S. A., Beattie, K., & Eden, G. F. (2008). A randomized, controlled study of computer-based intervention in middle school struggling readers. Brain and Language, 106(2), 83–97. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin, A., & Ahn, S. (2010). A meta-analysis of morphological interventions: Effects on literacy achievement of children with literacy difficulties. Annals of Dyslexia, 60(2), 183–208. doi:10.1007/s11881-010-0041-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin, A., & Ahn, S. (2013). A meta-analysis of morphological interventions in English: Effects on literacy outcomes for school-age children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(4), 257–285. doi:10.1080/10888438.2012.689791
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of writing and writing instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review, 81(4), 710–744. doi:10.3102/0034654317746927
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., & Whitaker, D. (1997). Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 170. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Adkins, M. (2018). The impact of supplemental handwriting and spelling instruction with first grade students who do not acquire transcription skills as rapidly as peers: A randomized control trial. Reading and Writing, 31(6), 1273–1294. doi:10.1007/s11145-018-9822-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Chorzempa, B. F. (2002). Contribution of spelling instruction to the spelling, writing, and reading of poor spellers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 669. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.669
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Hebert, M. (2011). It is more than just the message: Presentation effects in scoring writing. Focus on Exceptional Children, 44(4), 1. doi:10.17161/fec.v44i4.6687
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., & Santangelo, T. (2014). Does spelling instruction make students better spellers, readers, and writers? A meta-analytic review. Reading and Writing, 27(9), 1703–1743. doi:10.1007/s11145-014-9517-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, S. (2015). The effects of morpho-phonemic and whole word instruction on the literacy skills of adult struggling readers. New York, NY: City University of New York.
   Google Scholar
• *Groth, K., Hasko, S., Bruder, J., Kunze, S., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2013). Interventionseffekte bei Lese-Rechtschreibstörung: Evaluation von zwei Förderkonzepten unter besonderer Betrachtung methodischer Aspekte. Lernen Und Lernstörungen, 2(3), 161–175. doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000038
   Google Scholar
• *Gustafson, S., Ferreira, J., & Ronnberg, J. (2007). Phonological or orthographic training for children with phonological or orthographic decoding deficits. Dyslexia, 13(3), 211–229. doi:10.1002/dys.339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass's estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6(2), 107–128. doi:10.2307/1164588
   Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V., Tipton, E., & Johnson, M. C. (2010). Robust variance estimation in meta‐regression with dependent effect size estimates. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(1), 39–65. doi:10.1002/jrsm.5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. (2011). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration. Retrieved from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
   Google Scholar
• Higgins, J., & Altman, D. (2008). Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In J. P. T. Higgins & S. Green (Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions: Cochrane Book Series (pp. 187–241). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Online Library. doi:10.1002/9780470712184.ch8
   Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. P. T., & Green, S. (2008). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (Vol. 5): Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Online Library.
   Google Scholar
• Hilte, M., & Reitsma, P. (2011). Effects of explicit rules in learning to spell open-and closed-syllable words. Learning and Instruction, 21(1), 34–45. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Hughes, J. A., Phillips, G., & Reed, P. (2013). Brief exposure to a self-paced computer-based reading programme and how it impacts reading ability and behaviour problems. PLoS One, 8(11), e77867. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077867
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ise, E., Engel, R. R., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2012). Effective treatment of dyslexia: A meta-analysis on the effectiveness of German-language intervention approaches. Kindheit Und Entwicklung, 21(2), 122–136. doi:10.1026/0942-5403/a000077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ise, E., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2010). Spelling deficits in dyslexia: Evaluation of an orthographic spelling training. Annals of Dyslexia, 60, 18–39. doi:10.1007/s11881-010-0035-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, N. E., & Coltheart, M. (2013). Routes to reading success and failure: Toward an integrated cognitive psychology of atypical reading. London, UK: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jamshidifarsania, H., Garbayab, S., Limc, T., Blazevica, P., & Ritchie, J. M. (2019). Technology-based reading intervention programs for elementary grades: An analytical review. Computers and Education, 128, 427–451. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Jensen, J., Lindgren, M., Andersson, K., Ingvar, D. H., & Levander, S. (2000). Cognitive intervention in unemployed individuals with reading and writing disabilities. Applied Neuropsychology, 7(4), 223–236. doi:10.1207/S15324826AN0704_4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kast, M., Baschera, G.-M., Gross, M., Jäncke, L., & Meyer, M. (2011). Computer-based learning of spelling skills in children with and without dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 61(2), 177–200. doi:10.1007/s11881-011-0052-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kast, M., Meyer, M., Vogeli, C., Gross, M., & Jancke, L. (2007). Computer-based multisensory learning in children with developmental dyslexia. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 25(3–4), 355–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, L., & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. Advances in Psychology, 94, 67–67. doi:10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62789-2
   Google Scholar
• Kellogg, R. T. (2008). Training writing skills: A cognitive developmental perspective. Journal of Writing Research, 1(1), 1–26. doi:10.17239/jowr-2008.01.01.1
   Google Scholar
• Kirby, J. R., Deacon, S. H., Bowers, P. N., Izenberg, L., Wade-Woolley, L., & Parrila, R. (2012). Children's morphological awareness and reading ability. Reading and Writing, 25(2), 389–410. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9276-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kirk, C., & Gillon, G. T. (2009). Integrated morphological awareness intervention as a tool for improving literacy. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40(3), 341–351. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2008/08-0009)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lange, A. A., Mulhern, G., & Wylie, J. (2009). Proofreading using an assistive software homophone tool. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(4), 322–335. doi:10.1177/0022219408331035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 1–14. doi:10.1007/s11881-003-0001-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan, B., Messer, J., Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., Snowling, M., Yule, W., & Rutter, M. (2009). Persistence of literacy problems: Spelling in adolescence and at mid-life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(8), 893–901. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02079.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArthur, G., Eve, P. M., Jones, K., Banales, E., Kohnen, S., Anandakumar, T., … Castles, A. (2012). Phonics training for English-speaking poor readers. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 12. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009115.pub2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8(3), 299–325. doi:10.1007/BF01464076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCutchen, D. (2000). Knowledge, processing, and working memory: Implications for a theory of writing. Educational Psychologist, 35(1), 13–23. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3501_3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCutchen, D., & Logan, B. (2011). Inside incidental word learning: Children's strategic use of morphological information to infer word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, 46(4), 334–349. doi:10.1002/RRQ.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCutchen, D., Stull, S., Herrera, B. L., Lotas, S., & Evans, S. (2014). Putting words to work: Effects of morphological instruction on children’s writing. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(1), 86–97. doi:10.1177/0022219413509969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McShane, B. B., Böckenholt, U., & Hansen, K. T. (2016). Adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis: An evaluation of selection methods and some cautionary notes. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(5), 730–749. doi:10.1177/1745691616662243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G, & The-PRISMA-Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Specific learning disorder: Prevalence and gender differences. PLoS One, 9(7), e103537. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moll, K., & Landerl, K. (2009). Double dissociation between reading and spelling deficits. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 359–382. doi:10.1080/10888430903162878
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moll, K., Ramus, F., Bartling, J., Bruder, J., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., … Landerl, K. (2014). Cognitive mechanisms underlying reading and spelling development in five European orthographies. Learning and Instruction, 29, 65–77. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, S. (2008). Estimating effect sizes from Pretest-Posttest-Control group designs. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 364–386. doi:10.1177/1094428106291059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagy, W., Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Vaughan, K., & Vermeulen, K. (2003). Relationship of morphology and other language skills in at-risk second-grade readers and at-risk fourth grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 730–742. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.730
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Oakland, T., Black, J. L., Stanford, G., Nussbaum, N. L., & Balise, R. R. (1998). An evaluation of the dyslexia training program: A multisensory method for promoting reading in students with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(2), 140–147. doi:10.1177/002221949803100204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *O’Shaughnessy, T. E., & Swanson, H. L. (2000). A comparison of two reading interventions for children with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 3, 257–277. doi:10.1177/002221940003300304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouellette, G., Martin-Chang, S., & Rossi, M. (2017). Learning from our mistakes: Improvements in spelling lead to gains in reading speed. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(4), 350–357. doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1306064
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perfetti, C., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In L. Verhoeven, C. Elbro, & P. Reitsma (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamin.
   Google Scholar
• Perfetti, C. A., & Hogaboam, T. (1975). Relationship between single word decoding and reading comprehension skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(4), 461–469. doi:10.1037/h0077013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pustejovsky, J. E. (2016). clubSandwich: Cluster-Robust (Sandwich) variance estimators with small-sample corrections (R Package Version 0.2. 1.9000) [Computer Software]. Retrieved from https://cran.rproject.org/package=clubSandwich
   Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.r-project.org/.
   Google Scholar
• *Rashotte, C. A., MacPhee, K., & Torgesen, J. K. (2001). The effectiveness of a group reading instruction program with poor readers in multiple grades. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24(2), 119–134. doi:10.2307/1511068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rastle, K. (2018). The place of morphology in learning to read in English. Cortex, 116, 45–54. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.02.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rastle, K., & Taylor, J. (2018). Print-sound regularities are more important than print-meaning regularities in the initial stages of learning to read: Response to Bowers & Bowers (2018). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(7), 1501–1505. doi:10.1177/1747021818775053
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Reuter-Liehr, C. (1993). Behandlung der Lese-Rechtschreibschwäche nach der Grundschulzeit: Anwendung und Überprüfung eines Konzeptes. Zeitschrift Für Kinder-Und Jugendpsychiatrie, 21(3), 135–147.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saddler, B., & Graham, S. (2005). The effects of peer-assisted sentence-combining instruction on the writing performance of more and less skilled young writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 43–54. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.1.43
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scammacca, N., Roberts, G., Vaughn, S., & Stuebing, K. (2015). A meta-analysis of interventions for struggling readers in grades 4–12: 1980–2011. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(4), 369–390. doi:10.1177/0022219413504995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmalz, X. (Producer). (2018). Python Script for calculating onset entropy. Retrieved from https://osf.io/8r6zf/
   Google Scholar
• Schmalz, X., Marinus, E., Coltheart, M., & Castles, A. (2015). Getting to the bottom of orthographic depth. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 22(6), 1614–1629. doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0835-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, F. L. (1992). What do data really mean? Research findings, meta-analysis, and cumulative knowledge in psychology. American Psychologist, 47(10), 1173. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.10.1173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulte-Körne, G., Deimel, W., Hülsmann, J., Seidler, T., & Remschmidt, H. (2001). Das Marburger Rechtschreib-Training–Ergebnisse einer Kurzzeit-Intervention. Zeitschrift Für Kinder- Und Jugendpsychiatrie Und Psychotherapie, 29(1), 7–15. doi:10.1024//1422-4917.29.1.7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serrano, F., Genard, N., Sucena, A., Defior, S., Alegria, J., Mousty, P., … Seymour, P. H. K. (2011). Variations in reading and spelling acquisition in Portuguese, French and Spanish: A cross-linguistic comparison. Journal of Portuguese Linguistics, 10(1), 183–204. doi:10.5334/jpl.106
   Google Scholar
• Seymour, P. H., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94(2), 143–174. doi:10.1348/000712603321661859
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55(2), 151–218. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)00645-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SIGN, Harbour, R. T., & Forsyth, L. (2008). SIGN 50: A guideline developer's handbook. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network.
   Google Scholar
• *Spencer, F., Snart, F., & Das, J. (1989). A process-based approach to the remediation of spelling in students with reading disabilities. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 35(4), 269–282.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprenger-Charolles, L., Siegel, L. S., & Bonnet, P. (1998). Reading and spelling acquisition in French: The role of phonological mediation and orthographic factors. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 68(2), 134–165. doi:10.1006/jecp.1997.2422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Squires, K. E., & Wolter, J. A. (2016). The effects of orthographic pattern intervention on spelling performance of students with reading disabilities: A best evidence synthesis. Remedial and Special Education, 37(6), 357–369. doi:10.1177/0741932516631115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strehlow, U., Haffner, J., Busch, G., Pfüller, U., Rellum, T., & Zerahn-Hartung, C. (1999). An Schwächen üben oder durch Stärken ausgleichen? Vergleich zweier Strategien in der Förderung von Kindern mit einer umschriebenen Lese-Rechtschreib-Schwäche. Zeitschrift Für Kinder- Und Jugendpsychiatrie Und Psychotherapie, 27(2), 103–113. doi:10.1024//1422-4917.27.2.103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, J., Davis, M. H., & Rastle, K. (2017). Comparing and validating methods of reading instruction using behavioural and neural findings in an artificial orthography. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(6), 826–858. doi:10.1037/xge0000301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Thaler, V., Landerl, K., & Reitsma, P. (2008). An evaluation of spelling pronunciations as a means of improving spelling of orthographic markers. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 23(1), 3–23. doi:10.1007/BF03173137
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thalmann, S. (2014). Adaption criteria for the personalized delivery of learning materials: A multi-stage empirical investigation. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 30(1), 45–60. doi:10.14742/ajet.235
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Tijms, J. (2011). Effectiveness of computer-based treatment for dyslexia in a clinical care settin: Outcomes and moderators. Educational Psychology, 31(7), 873–896. doi:10.1080/01443410.2011.621403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipton, E. (2015). Small sample adjustments for robust variance estimation with meta-regression. Psychological Methods, 20(3), 375–393. doi:10.1037/met0000011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treiman, R. (2018). Teaching and learning spelling. Child Development Perspectives, 12(4), 235–239. doi:10.1111/cdep12292
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treiman, R., & Bourassa, D. C. (2000). The development of spelling skill. Topics in Language Disorders, 20(3), 1–18. doi:10.1097/00011363-200020030-00004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treiman, R., & Kessler, B. (2014). How children learn to spell words: New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Truong, H. M. (2016). Integrating learning styles and adaptive e-learning system: Current developments, problems and opportunities. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 1185–1193. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Vadasy, P., Sanders, E., & Peyton, J. (2005). Relative effectiveness of reading practice or word-level instruction in supplemental tutoring: How text matters. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(4), 364–380. doi:10.1177/00222194050380041401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vevea, J. L., & Woods, C. M. (2005). Publication bias in research synthesis: Sensitivity analysis using a priori weight functions. Psychological Methods, 10(4), 428–443. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.10.4.428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Metafor: Meta-analysis package for R (R Package Version, 2010, 1–0).
   Google Scholar
• Volkmer, S., Schulte-Körne, G., & Galuschka, K. (2019). Die Rolle der morphologischen Bewusstheit bei Lese-und Rechtschreibleistungen. Zeitschrift Für Kinder-Und Jugendpsychiatrie Und Psychotherapie, 47(4), 334–344. doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Walter, J., Schliebe, L., & Barzen, S. (2007). Evaluation eines morphemorientiert-strategischen Rechtschreibtrainings in schulischen Fördergruppen mit Grundschülern der 3. Heilpädagogische Forschung, 13(14), 3–153.
   Google Scholar
• Wanzek, J., & Vaughn, S. (2008). Response to varying amounts of time in reading intervention for students with low response to intervention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(2), 126–142. doi:10.1177/0022219407313426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Scammacca, N., Gatlin, B., Walker, M. A., & Capin, P. (2016). Meta-analyses of the effects of tier 2 type reading interventions in grades K-3. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 551–576. doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9321-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Swanson, E. A., Edmonds, M., & Kim, A.-H. (2006). A synthesis of spelling and reading interventions and their effects on the spelling outcomes of students with LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(6), 528–543. doi:10.1177/00222194060390060501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Weber, J.-M., Marx, P., & Schneider, W. (2002). Profitieren Legastheniker und allgemein lese-rechtschreibschwache Kinder in unterschiedlichem Ausmaß von einem Rechtschreibtraining? Psychologie in Erziehung Und Unterricht, 49(1), 56–70.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1992). Wechsler individual achievement test: Manual. San Antonio: TX: Psychological Corportation.
   Google Scholar
• Weiser, B., & Mathes, P. (2011). Using encoding instruction to improve the reading and spelling performances of elementary students at risk for literacy difficulties: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 170–200. doi:10.3102/0034654310396719
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, G. (1993). The wide range achievement test (3rd ed.). Wilmington, DE: Wide Range.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, C., & Beam, S. (2019). Technology and writing: Review of research. Computers and Education, 128, 227–242. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. J., Walker, M. A., Vaughn, S., & Wanzek, J. (2017). A synthesis of reading and spelling interventions and their effects on spelling outcomes for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(3), 286–297. doi:10.1177/0022219415619753
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar