Cognitive Load and Classroom Teaching: The Double-Edged Sword of Automaticity

REFERENCES

• Aarts , H. and Dijksterhuis , A. 2000 . Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 78 : 53 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts , H. and Dijksterhuis , A. 2003 . The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm, and social behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 84 : 18 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen , D. W. and Eve , A. W. 1968 . Microteaching . Theory into Practice. , 7 : 181 – 185 .
   Google Scholar
• Allen , R. M. and Casbergue , R. M. 1997 . Evolution of novice through expert teachers' recall: Implications for effective reflection on practice . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 13 : 741 – 755 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen , R. , McGeorge , P. , Pearson , D. and Milne , A. B. 2004 . Attention and expertise in multiple target tracking . Applied Cognitive Psychology. , 18 : 337 – 347 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amobi , F. A. 2005 . Preservice teachers' reflectivity on the sequence and consequences of teaching actions in a microteaching experience . Teacher Education Quarterly. , 32 : 115 – 129 .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , J. R. 1987 . Skill acquisition: Compilation of weak-method problem situations . Psychological Review. , 94 : 192 – 210 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , J. R. 1995 . Cognitive psychology and its implications, , 4th ed. , New York : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Anderson , L. M. , Blumenfeld , P. , Pintrich , P. R. , Clark , C. M. , Marx , R. W. and Peterson , P. 1995 . Educational psychology for teachers: Reforming our courses, rethinking our roles . Educational Psychologist. , 30 : 143 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson , R. K. , Derry , S. J. , Renkl , A. and Wortham , D. 2000 . Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research . Review of Educational Research. , 70 : 181 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babad , E. Y. 1985 . Some correlates of teachers' expectancy bias . American Educational Research Journal. , 22 : 175 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballou , D. and Podgursky , M. 2000 . Reforming teacher preparation and licensing: What is the evidence? . Teachers College Record , 102 : 5 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. 2000 . “ The psychology of the mere ” . In Unraveling the complexities of social life: A festschrift in honor of Robert B. Zajonc , Edited by: Bargh , J. A. and Apsley , D. 35 – 49 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. and Chartrand , T. L. 1999 . The unbearable automaticity of being . American Psychologist. , 54 : 462 – 479 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. and Ferguson , M. J. 2000 . Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes . Psychological Bulletin. , 126 : 925 – 945 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. , Gollwitzer , P. M. , Lee-Chai , A. , Barndollar , K. and Trötschel , R. 2001 . The automated will: The nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 81 : 1014 – 1027 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. , Tugade , M. M. and Engle , R. W. 2004 . Individual differences in working memory capacity and dual-process theories of mind . Psychological Bulletin. , 130 : 553 – 573 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. and Carr , T. H. 2001 . On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 130 : 701 – 725 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. , Kulp , C. A. , Holt , L. E. and Carr , T. H. 2004 . More on the fragility of performance: Choking under pressure in mathematical problem solving . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. , 133 : 584 – 600 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. , Wierenga , S. A. and Carr , T. H. 2002 . Expertise, attention, and memory in sensorimotor skill execution: Impact of novel task constraints on dual-task performance and episodic memory . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 55A : 1211 – 1240 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bereiter , C. and Scardamalia , M. 1993 . Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise , Chicago : Open Court .
   Google Scholar
• Berliner , D. C. 1986 . In pursuit of the expert pedagogue . Educational Researcher. , 15 : 5 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Berliner , D. C. The development of expertise in pedagogy . Charles W. Hunt Memorial Lecture presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education . New Orleans , LA . February 17–20 . (ERIC Documentation Service No. ED298122)
   Google Scholar
• Bessenoff , G. R. and Sherman , J. W. 2000 . Automatic and controlled components of prejudice toward fat people: Evaluation versus stereotype activation . Social Cognition. , 18 : 329 – 353 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binder , C. 2003 . Doesn't everybody need fluency? . Performance Improvement , 42 ( 5 ) : 14 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Blair , I. V. and Banaji , M. R. 1996 . Automatic and controlled processes in gender stereotyping . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 70 : 1142 – 1163 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blessing , S. B. and Anderson , J. R. 1996 . How people learn to skip steps . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. , 22 : 576 – 598 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloom , B. S. 1986 . The hands and feet of genius: Automaticity . Educational Leadership , 43 ( 5 ) : 70 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borko , H. and Livingston , C. 1989 . Cognition and improvisation: Differences in mathematics instruction by expert and novice teachers . American Educational Research Journal. , 26 : 473 – 498 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borko , H. and Putnum , R. T. 1996 . “ Learning to teach ” . In Handbook of educational psychology , Edited by: Berliner , D. and Calfee , R. 673 – 707 . New York : Simon & Schuster Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Botvinick , M. M. , Cohen , J. D. and Carter , C. S. 2004 . Conflict monitoring and anterior cingulate cortex . TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences. , 8 : 539 – 546 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , S. W. and Bennett , E. D. 2002 . The role of practice and automaticity in temporal and nontemporal dual-task performance . Psychological Research. , 66 : 80 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruenken , R. , Plass , J. L. and Leutner , D. 2003 . Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning . Educational Psychologist. , 38 : 53 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderhead , J. and Robson , M. 1991 . Images of teaching: Student teachers' early conceptions of classroom practice . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 7 : 1 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camp , G. , Paas , F. , Rikers , R. and van Merriënboer , J. 2001 . Dynamic problem selection in air traffic control training: A comparison between performance, mental effort and mental efficiency . Computers in Human Behavior. , 17 : 575 – 595 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canter , L. and Canter , M. 1992 . Assertive discipline, , Rev. ed. , Santa Monica , CA : Canter & Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Carlson , R. A. , Khoo , H. and Elliot , R. G. 1990 . Component practice and exposure to a problem-solving context . Human Factors. , 32 : 267 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carre , C. 1993 . “ The first year of teaching ” . In Learning to teach , Edited by: Bennett , N. and Carre , C. 191 – 211 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Carter , K. , Sabers , D. S. , Cushing , K. S. , Pinnegar , S. and Berliner , D. C. 1987 . Processing and using information about students: A study of expert, novice and postulant teachers . Teachers and Teacher Education. , 3 : 147 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cary , M. and Reder , L. M. 2002 . “ Metacognition in strategy selection: Giving consciousness too much credit ” . In Metacognition: Process, function, and use , Edited by: Itzaute , M. , Chambers , P. and Marescaux , P. J. 63 – 78 . New York : Kluwer .
   Google Scholar
• Chandler , P. and Sweller , J. 1991 . Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction . Cognition and Instruction. , 8 : 293 – 332 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , G. B. and Johnson , E. J. 2002 . “ Incorporating the irrelevant: Anchors in judgments of belief and value ” . In Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment , Edited by: Gilovich , T. , Griffin , D. and Kahneman , D. 120 – 138 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cioffi , D. and Holloway , J. 1993 . Delayed costs of suppressed pain . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 64 : 274 – 282 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark , C. M. 1978–79 . A new question for research on teaching . Educational Research Quarterly , 3 : 53 – 58 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark , C. M. 1988 . Asking the right questions about teacher preparation: Contributions of research on teacher thinking . Educational Researcher , 17 ( 2 ) : 5 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , C. M. and Yinger , R. J. 1977 . Research on teacher thinking . Curriculum Inquiry , 7 : 279 – 304 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark , R. E. 2001 . “ New directions: Cognitive and motivational research issues ” . In Learning from media: Arguments, analysis, and evidence , Edited by: Clark , R. E. 263 – 298 . Greenwich , CT : Information Age Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , R. E. and Elen , J. 2006 . “ When less is more: Research and theory insights about instruction for complex learning ” . In Handling complexity in learning environments: Theory and research , Edited by: Elen , J. and Clark , R. E. 283 – 295 . New York : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , R. E. and Estes , F. 1996 . Cognitive task analysis . International Journal of Educational Research. , 25 : 403 – 417 .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , R. E. , Feldon , D. , van Merriënboer , J. J. G. , Yates , K. and Early , S. “ Cognitive task analysis ” . In Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Spector , J. M. , Merrill , M. D. , van Merriënboer , J. J. G. and Driscoll , M. P. Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . (in press)
   Google Scholar
• Cochran-Smith , M. and Zeichner , K. M. 2005 . Studying teacher education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education , Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. D. , Dunbar , K. and McClelland , J. L. 1990 . On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect . Psychological Review. , 97 : 332 – 361 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper , G. and Sweller , J. 1987 . Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem solving transfer . Journal of Educational Psychology. , 79 : 347 – 362 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copeland , W. D. , Birmingham , C. , De La Cruz , E. and Lewin , B. 1993 . The reflective practitioner in teaching: Toward a research agenda . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 9 : 347 – 359 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corcoran , E. 1981 . Transition shock: The beginning teacher's paradox . Journal of Teacher Education , 32 ( 3 ) : 19 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan , N. 2000 . The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity . Behavioral and Brain Sciences. , 24 : 87 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crandall , B. and Getchell-Reiter , K. 1993 . Critical decision method: A technique for eliciting concrete assessment indicators from the “intuition” of NICU nurses . Advances in Nursing Sciences. , 16 : 42 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruickshank , D. R. , Bainier , D. , Cruz , J. Jr. , Giebelhaus , C. , McCullough , J. D. Metcalf , K. M. 1996 . Preparing America's teachers , Bloomington , IN : Phi Delta Kappa .
   Google Scholar
• Cruickshank , D. R. and Metcalf , K. K. 1993 . Improving preservice teacher assessment through on-campus laboratory teaching experiences . Theory into Practice , 32 ( 2 ) : 86 – 92 .
   Google Scholar
• Darling-Hammond , L. , ed. 2000 . Studies of excellence in teacher education , Washington , DC : American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education .
   Google Scholar
• Darling-Hammond , L. and Snyder , J. 2000 . Authentic assessment of teaching in context . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 16 : 523 – 545 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine , P. G. 1989 . Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 56 : 5 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine , P. G. and Monteith , M. J. 1999 . “ Automaticity and control in stereotyping ” . In Dual process theories in social psychology , Edited by: Chaiken , S. and Trope , Y. 339 – 360 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Devine , P. G. , Plant , E. A. , Amodio , D. M. , Harmon-Jones , E. and Vance , S. L. 2002 . The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 82 : 835 – 848 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle , W. 1977 . Learning in the classroom environment: An ecological analysis . Journal of Teacher Education. , 28 : 51 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle , W. 1986 . “ Classroom organization and management ” . In Handbook of research on teaching, , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Wittrock , M. C. 392 – 425 . New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Doyle , W. and Redwine , J. M. 1974 . Effect of intent-action discrepancy and student performance feedback on teacher behavior change . Journal of Educational Psychology. , 66 : 750 – 755 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson , K. A. 1998 . The scientific study of expert levels of performance: General implications for optimal learning and creativity . High Ability Studies. , 9 : 75 – 100 .
   Google Scholar
• Ericsson , K. A. 2004 . Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in medicine and related domains . Academic Medicine , 79 : S70 – S81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson , K. A. and Kintsch , W. 1995 . Long-term working memory . Psychological Review. , 102 : 211 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson , K. A. , Krampe , R. T. and Tesch-Römer , C. 1993 . The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance . Psychological Review. , 100 : 363 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson , K. A. and Simon , H. A. 1993 . Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data, , Rev. ed. , Cambridge , MA : Bradford Books/MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. , Jackson , J. R. , Dunton , B. C. and Williams , C. J. 1995 . Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure or racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 : 1013 – 1027 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fazio , R. H. , Sanbonmatsu , D. M. , Powell , M. C. and Kardes , F. R. 1986 . On the automatic activation of attitudes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 50 : 229 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feiman-Nemser , S. 2001 . From preparation to practice: Designing a continuum to strengthen and sustain teaching . Teachers College Record. , 103 : 1013 – 1055 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldon , D. F. 2007 . Implications of research on expertise for curriculum and pedagogy . Educational Psychology Review. , 19 : 91 – 110 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldon , D. F. and Clark , R. E. 2006 . “ Instructional implications of cognitive task analysis as a method for improving the accuracy of experts' self-report ” . In Avoiding simplicity, confronting complexity: Advances in studying and designing (computer-based) powerful learning environments , Edited by: Clarebout , G. and Elen , J. 109 – 116 . Rotterdam , , Netherlands : Sense Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Fenstermacher , G. D. 1980 . “ What needs to be known about what teachers need to know? ” . In Exploring issues in teacher education: Questions for future research , Edited by: Hall , G. E. , Hord , S. M. and Brown , G. 35 – 49 . Austin , TX : Research and Development Center for Teacher Education .
   Google Scholar
• Fischer , K. W. , Bullock , D. H. , Rotenberg , E. J. and Raya , P. 1993 . “ The dynamics of competence: How context contributes directly to skill ” . In Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments , Edited by: Wozniak , R. H. and Fischer , K. W. 93 – 117 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. 1989 . Training consistent components of tasks: Developing an instructional system based on automatic/controlled processing principles . Human Factors. , 31 : 453 – 463 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. and Eggemeier , R. T. Application of automatic/controlled processing theory to training of tactical command and control skills: I. Background and task analytic methodology . 33rd Annual Proceedings of the Human Factors Society . pp. 281 – 285 . Santa Monica , CA : Human Factors Society .
   Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. , Lee , M. D. and Rogers , W. A. 1991 . Recombination of automatic processing components: The effects of transfer, reversal, and conflict situations . Human Factors , 33 : 267 – 280 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. , Oransky , N. A. and Skedsvold , P. R. 1988 . Examination of the role of “higher order” consistency in skill development . Human Factors. , 30 : 567 – 581 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. and Rogers , W. A. 1988 . The role of situational context in the development of high-performance skills . Human Factors. , 30 : 702 – 712 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floden , R. E. and Buchmann , M. 1993 . Between routines and anarchy: Preparing teacher for uncertainty . Oxford Review of Education. , 19 : 373 – 382 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gigerenzer , G. , Czerlinski , J. and Martignon , L. 2002 . “ How good are fast and frugal heuristics? ” . In Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment , Edited by: Gilovich , T. , Griffin , D. and Kahneman , D. 559 – 581 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gobet , F. 1998 . Expert memory: A comparison of four theories . Cognition. , 66 : 115 – 152 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobet , F. and Simon , H. A. 1996 . Templates in chess memory: A mechanism for recalling several boards . Cognitive Psychology. , 31 : 1 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobet , F. and Simon , H. A. 1998 . Expert chess memory: Revisiting the chunking hypothesis . Memory. , 6 : 225 – 255 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldinger , S. D. , Kleider , H. M. , Azuma , T. and Beike , D. 2003 . “Blaming the victim” under memory load . Psychological Science. , 14 : 81 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez , L. E. and Carter , K. 1996 . Correspondence in cooperating teachers' and student teachers' interpretations of classroom events . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 12 : 39 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Good , T. L. and Nichols , S. L. 2001 . Expectancy effects in the classroom: A special focus on improving the reading performance of minority students in first-grade classrooms . Educational Psychologist. , 36 : 113 – 126 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray , R. 2004 . Attending to the execution of a complex sensorimotor skill: Expertise differences, choking, and slumps . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. , 10 : 42 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald , A. G. and Banaji , M. R. 1995 . Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes . Psychological Review. , 102 : 4 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath , R. W. and Nielson , M. A. 1974 . The research basis for performance-based teacher education . Review of Educational Research. , 44 : 463 – 484 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heide , F. J. and Borkovec , T. D. 1983 . Relaxation-induced anxiety: Paradoxical anxiety enhancement due to relaxation training . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. , 51 : 171 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helsing , D. Regarding uncertainty in teachers and teaching . Teaching and Teacher Education , (in press)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermans , D. , Crombez , G. and Eelen , P. 2000 . Automatic attitude activation and efficiency: The fourth horseman of automaticity . Psychologica Belgica. , 40 : 3 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman , R. R. , Crandall , B. and Shadbolt , N. 1998 . Use of the critical decision method to elicit expert knowledge: A case study in the methodology of cognitive task analysis . Human Factors. , 40 : 254 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan , T. , Rabinowitz , M. and Craven , J. A. 2003 . Representation in teaching: Inferences from research of expert and novice teachers . Educational Psychologist. , 38 : 235 – 247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• House , E. 1996 . A framework for appraising educational reforms . Educational Researcher , 25 ( 7 ) : 6 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Housner , L. D. and Griffey , D. C. 1985 . Teacher cognition: Differences in planning and interactive decision-making between experienced and inexperienced teachers . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. , 56 : 45 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , P. W. 1968 . Life in classrooms , New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Kagan , D. 1990 . Ways of evaluating teacher cognition: Inferences concerning the Goldilocks principle . Review of Educational Research. , 60 : 419 – 469 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagan , D. 1992 . Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers . Review of Educational Research. , 62 : 129 – 169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagan , D. and Tippins , D. J. 1992 . How U.S. preservice teachers “read” classroom performances . Journal of Education in Teaching , 18 : 149 – 158 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessels , J. and Korthagen , F. 1996 . The relationship between theory and practice: Back to the classics . Educational Researcher , 25 ( 3 ) : 17 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Klein , G. A. and Calderwood , R. 1991 . Decision models: Some lessons from the field . IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. , 21 : 1018 – 1026 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohn , A. 1996 . Beyond discipline: From compliance to community , Alexandria , VA : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development .
   Google Scholar
• Korthagen , F. and Kessels , J. 1999 . Linking theory and practice: Changing the pedagogy of teacher education . Educational Researcher , 28 ( 4 ) : 4 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Korthagen , F. , Loughran , J. and Russell , T. 2006 . Developing fundamental principles for teacher education programs and practices . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 22 : 1020 – 1041 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer , A. F. , Strayer , D. L. and Buckley , J. 1990 . Development and transfer of automatic processing . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. , 16 : 505 – 522 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda , Z. and Thagard , P. 1996 . Forming impressions from stereotypes, traits, and behaviors: A parallel-constraint-satisfaction theory . Psychological Review. , 103 : 284 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lampert , M. and Ball , D. L. 1998 . Mathematics, teaching, and multimedia: Investigations of real practice , New York : Teachers College Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , F. J. and Anderson , J. R. 2001 . Does learning a complex task have to be complex? A study in learning decomposition . Cognitive Psychology. , 42 : 267 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , O. and Porter , A. C. 1990 . Bounded rationality in classroom teaching . Educational Psychologist. , 25 : 159 – 171 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leinhardt , G. 1990 . Capturing craft knowledge in teaching . Educational Researcher , 19 ( 2 ) : 18 – 25 .
   Google Scholar
• Leinhardt , G. and Greeno , J. G. 1986 . The cognitive skill of teaching . Journal of Educational Psychology. , 78 : 75 – 95 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leinwand , S. J. 1998 . On my mind . Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School. , 3 : 330 – 331 .
   Google Scholar
• Levine , A. 2006 . Educating school teachers , Washington , DC : The Education Schools Project .
   Google Scholar
• Lortie , D. 1975 . Schoolteacher: A sociological study , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Macrae , C. N. , Bodenhausen , G. V. , Milne , A. B. and Wheeler , V. 1996 . On resisting the temptation for simplification: Counterintentional effects of stereotype suppression on social memory . Social Cognition. , 14 : 1 – 20 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macrae , C. N. , Hewstone , M. and Griffiths , R. J. 1993 . Processing load and memory for stereotype-based information . European Journal of Social Psychology. , 23 : 77 – 87 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masunaga , H. and Horn , J. 2000 . Characterizing mature human intelligence: Expertise development . Learning and Individual Differences. , 12 : 5 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellado , V. 1998 . The classroom practice of preservice teachers and their conceptions of teaching and learning science . Science Education. , 82 : 197 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merseth , K. K. 1999 . “ Foreword: A rationale for case-based pedagogy in teacher education ” . In Who learns what from cases and how? , ix – xv . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Metcalf , K. K. , Ronen Hammer , M. A. and Kahlich , P. A. 1996 . Alternatives to field-based experiences: The comparative effects of on-campus laboratories . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 12 : 271 – 283 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , G. A. 1956 . The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information . The Psychological Review. , 63 : 81 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteith , M. J. , Sherman , J. W. and Devine , P. G. 1998 . Suppression as a stereotype control strategy . Personality and Social Psychology Review. , 2 : 63 – 82 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moors , A. and De Houwer , J. 2006 . Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis . Psychological Bulletin. , 132 : 297 – 326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute of Education . 1975 . Teaching as clinical information processing , Washington , DC : National Institute of Education . Report of Panel 6, National Conference on Studies in Teaching
   Google Scholar
• Needels , M. C. 1991 . Comparison of student, first-year, and experienced teachers' interpretations of a first-grade lesson . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 7 : 269 – 278 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nespor , J. 1987 . The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching . Journal of Curriculum Studies. , 19 : 317 – 328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nettle , E. B. 1998 . Stability and change in the beliefs of student teachers during practice teaching . Teacher and Teacher Education. , 14 : 192 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbett , R. E. and Wilson , T. D. 1977 . Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes . Psychological Review. , 84 : 231 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuthall , G. A. 1974 . Is classroom interaction research worth the effort involved? . New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies , 9 : 1 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuthall , G. A. 2005 . The cultural myths and realities of classroom teaching and learning: A personal journey . Teachers College Record. , 107 : 895 – 934 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlsson , S. 1996 . Learning from performance errors . Psychological Review. , 103 : 241 – 262 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson , M. R. and Osborne , J. W. 1991 . Learning to teach: The first year . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 7 : 331 – 343 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pajares , M. F. 1992 . Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct . Review of Educational Research. , 62 : 307 – 332 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer , D. J. , Stough , L. M. , Burdenski , T. K. and Gonzales , M. 2005 . Identifying teacher expertise: An examination of researchers' decision making . Educational Psychologist. , 40 : 13 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , M. and Jang , M. Different effects of cognitive loading at study on accurate and false memories . Presented at the 15th annual convention of the American Psychological Society . Atlanta , GA . May 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Payne , B. K. , Lambert , A. J. and Jacoby , L. L. 2002 . Best laid plans: Effects of goals on accessibility bias and cognitive control in race-based misperceptions of weapons . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. , 38 : 384 – 396 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne , J. W. , Bettman , J. R. and Johnson , E. J. 1993 . “ The use of multiple strategies in judgment and choice ” . In Individual and group decision making: Current issues , Edited by: Castellan , N. J. 19 – 39 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Reigeluth , C. M. , ed. 1983 . Instructional design theories and models , Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Renkl , A. and Atkinson , R. A. 2003 . Structuring the transition from example study to problem solving in cognitive skill acquisition: A cognitive load perspective . Educational Psychologist. , 38 : 15 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhine , S. 1998 . The role of research and teachers' knowledge base in professional development . Educational Researcher , 27 ( 5 ) : 27 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Rich , Y. 1990 . Ideological impediments to instructional innovation: The case of cooperative learning . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 5 : 81 – 91 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rieskamp , J. and Hoffrage , U. 1999 . “ When do people use simple heuristics and how can we tell ” . In Simple heuristics that make us smart , Edited by: Gigerenzer , G. and Todd , P. M. 141 – 167 . New York : Oxford University Press . the ABC Research Group
   Google Scholar
• Ritts , V. , Patterson , M. L. and Tubbs , M. E. 1992 . Expectations, impressions, and judgments of physically attractive students: A review . Review of Educational Research. , 62 : 413 – 426 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers , W. A. , Maurer , T. J. , Salas , E. and Fisk , A. D. 1997 . “ Training design, cognitive theory, and automaticity: Principles and a methodology ” . In Improving training effectiveness in work organizations , Edited by: Ford , J. K. 19 – 45 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Romano , M. E. 2004 . Teacher reflections on “bumpy moments” in teaching: A self-study . Teachers and Teaching: Theory in Practice. , 10 : 663 – 681 .
   Google Scholar
• Romano , M. E. 2006 . Bumpy moments in teaching: Reflections from practicing teachers . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 22 : 973 – 985 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romiszowski , A. 1997 . “ Web-based distance learning and teaching: Revolutionary invention or reaction to necessity? ” . In Web-based instruction , Edited by: Khan , B. 25 – 37 . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Educational Technology Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Rose , D. J. and Church , R. J. 1998 . Learning to teach: The acquisition and maintenance of teaching skills . Journal of Behavioral Education. , 8 : 5 – 35 .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal , R. 2002 . Covert communication in classrooms, clinics, courtrooms, and cubicles . American Psychologist. , 57 : 839 – 849 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowe , R. M. and McKenna , F. P. 2001 . Skilled anticipation in real-world tasks: Measurement of attentional demands in the domain of tennis . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. , 7 : 60 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabers , D. , Cushing , K. S. and Berliner , D. C. 1991 . Differences among teachers in a task characterized by simultaneity, multidimensionality, and immediacy . American Educational Research Journal. , 28 : 63 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salomon , G. 1984 . Television is “easy” and print is “tough”: The differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function of perceptions and attributions . Journal of Educational Psychology , 76 : 647 – 658 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schempp , P. G. , Tan , S. , Manross , D. and Fincher , M. 1998 . Differences in novice and competent teachers' knowledge . Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice. , 4 : 9 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt , M. and Knowles , J. G. 1995 . Four women's stories of “failure” as beginning teachers . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 11 : 429 – 444 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider , W. and Chein , J. M. 2003 . Controlled & automatic processing: Behavior, theory, and biological processing . Cognitive Science. , 27 : 525 – 559 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider , W. and Fisk , A. D. 1984 . Automatic category search and its transfer . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition , 10 : 1 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider , W. and Shiffrin , R. M. 1977 . Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention . Psychological Review , 84 : 1 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenfeld , A. 1998 . Toward a theory of teaching-in-context . Issues in Education. , 4 : 1 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• Schraagen , J. M. , Chipman , S. F. and Shute , V. J. 2000 . “ State-of-the-art review of cognitive task analysis techniques ” . In Cognitive task analysis , Edited by: Schraagen , J. M. , Chipman , S. F. and Shalin , V. L. 467 – 468 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Shavelson , R. J. 1973 . What is the basic teaching skill? . Journal of Teacher Education , 14 : 144 – 151 .
   Google Scholar
• Shavelson , R. J. 1976 . “ Teachers' decision making ” . In The psychology of teaching methods , Edited by: Gage , N. L. 145 – 169 . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shavelson , R. J. and Dempsey-Atwood , N. 1976 . Generalizability of measures of teaching behavior . Review of Educational Research. , 46 : 553 – 611 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shavelson , R. J. and Stern , P. 1981 . Research on teachers' pedagogical thoughts, judgments, decisions, and behavior . Review of Educational Research. , 51 : 455 – 498 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherin , M. G. and Han , S. 2004 . Teacher learning in the context of a video club . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 20 : 163 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiffrin , R. M. and Dumais , S. T. 1981 . “ The development of automatism ” . In Cognitive skills and their acquisition , Edited by: Anderson , J. R. 111 – 140 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Shulman , L. S. 1987a . Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform . Harvard Educational Review , 57 ( 3 ) : 1 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shulman , L. S. 1987b . “ The wisdom of practice: Managing complexity in medicine and teaching ” . In Talks to teachers: A festschrift for N. L. Gage , Edited by: Berliner , D. C. and Rosenshine , B. V. 369 – 386 . New York : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Shulman , L. S. and Elstein , A. S. 1975 . “ Studies of problem solving, judgment, and decision making ” . In Review of research in education , Edited by: Kerlinger , F. N. Vol. 3 , 3 – 42 . Itasca , IL : F. E. Peacock .
   Google Scholar
• Sikula , J. , ed. 1996 . Handbook or research on teacher education, , 2nd ed. , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Simmons , P. E. , Emory , A. , Carter , T. , Coker , T. , Finnegan , B. Crockett , D. 1999 . Beginning teachers: Beliefs and classroom actions . Journal of Research in Science Teaching. , 36 : 930 – 954 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon , H. A. 1957 . Models of man: Social and rational: Mathematical essays , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Sloman , S. A. 2002 . “ Two systems of reasoning ” . In Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment , Edited by: Gilovich , T. , Griffin , D. and Kahneman , D. 379 – 396 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , E. R. and DeCoster , J. 2000 . Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems . Personality and Social Psychology Review. , 4 : 108 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spillane , J. P. , Reiser , P. J. and Reimer , T. 2002 . Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research . Review of Educational Research. , 72 : 387 – 431 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternberg , R. J. and Horvath , J. A. 1995 . A prototype view of expert teaching . Educational Researcher , 24 ( 6 ) : 9 – 17 .
   Google Scholar
• Stroop , J. R. 1935 . Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions . Journal of Experimental Psychology. , 18 : 643 – 662 .
   Google Scholar
• Sun , R. , Slusarz , P. and Terry , C. 2005 . The interaction of the explicit and implicit in skill learning: A dual-process approach . Psychological Review. , 112 : 159 – 192 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson , H. L. , O'Connor , J. E. and Cooney , J. B. 1990 . An information processing analysis of expert and novice teachers' problem solving . American Educational Research Journal , 27 : 533 – 556 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweller , J. 1988 . Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning . Cognitive Science. , 12 : 257 – 285 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweller , J. 1989 . Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and problem solving in mathematics and science . Journal of Cognitive Psychology. , 81 : 457 – 466 .
   Google Scholar
• Sweller , J. 1999 . Instruction design in technical areas , Camberwell : Australian Council for Educational Research .
   Google Scholar
• Sweller , J. , Chandler , P. , Tierney , P. and Cooper , M. 1990 . Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. , 119 : 176 – 192 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweller , J. , van Merriënboer , J. G. and Paas , F. G. 1998 . Cognitive architecture and instructional design . Educational Psychology Review. , 10 : 251 – 296 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , S. C. , Kyle , D. , Osgood , A. , Quist , R. M. , Phillips , D. J. and McClure , M. 2004 . Illusory control and motives for control: The role of connection and intentionality . Motivation and Emotion. , 28 : 315 – 330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torff , B. 1999 . “ Tacit knowledge in teaching: Folk pedagogy and teacher education ” . In Tacit knowledge in professional practice: Researcher and practitioner perspectives , Edited by: Sternberg , R. J. and Horvath , J. A. 195 – 213 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Udvari-Solner , A. 1996 . Examining teacher thinking: Constructing a process to design curricular adaptations . Remedial and Special Education. , 17 : 245 – 254 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Es , E. A. and Sherin , M. G. 2002 . Learning to notice: Scaffolding new teachers' interpretations of classroom interactions . Journal of Technology and Teacher Education. , 10 : 571 – 596 .
   Google Scholar
• van Merriënboer , J. J. G. 1997 . Training complex cognitive skills: A four-component instructional design model for technical training , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Educational Technology .
   Google Scholar
• van Merriënboer , J. J. G. , Clark , R. E. and de Croock , M. B. M. 2002 . Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID*-model . Educational Technology Research and Development , 50 ( 2 ) : 39 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Merriënboer , J. J. G. , Kester , L. and Paas , F. 2006 . Teaching complex rather than simple tasks: Balancing instrinsic and germane load to enhance transfer of learning . Applied Cognitive Psychology. , 20 : 343 – 352 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Merriënboer , J. J. G. and Kirschner , P. A. 2007 . Ten steps to complex learning: A systematic approach to Four-Component Instructional Design , Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• van Merriënboer , J. J. G. , Kirschner , P. A. and Kester , L. 2003 . Taking the load off a learner's mind: Instructional design for complex learning . Educational Psychologist. , 38 : 5 – 13 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasquez-Levy , D. 1998 . Features of practical argument engagement . Teaching and Teacher Education. , 14 : 535 – 550 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veenman , S. 1984 . Perceived problems of beginning teachers . Review of Educational Research. , 54 : 143 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velmahos , G. , Toutouzas , K. , Sillin , L. , Chan , L. , Clark , R. E. Theodorou , D. 2004 . Cognitive task analysis for teaching technical skills in an animate surgical skills laboratory . The American Journal of Surgery , 187 : 114 – 119 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb , J. M. , Diana , E. M. , Luft , P. , Brooks , E. W. and Brennan , E. L. 1997 . Influence of pedagogical expertise and feedback on assessing student comprehension from nonverbal behavior . Journal of Educational Research. , 91 : 89 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. 1994 . Ironic processes of mental control . Psychological Review. , 101 : 34 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. 1997 . When the antidote is the poison: Ironic mental control processes . Psychological Science. , 8 : 148 – 150 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. 2002 . The illusion of conscious will , Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wegner , D. M. , Broome , A. and Blumberg , S. J. 1997 . Ironic effects of trying to relax under stress . Behavior Research Therapy. , 35 : 11 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzlaff , R. 1993 . “ The mental control of depression: Psychological obstacles to emotional well-being ” . In Handbook of mental control , Edited by: Wegner , D. M. and Pennebaker , J. W. 239 – 257 . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Wenzlaff , R. , Wegner , D. M. and Roper , D. 1988 . Depression and mental control: The resurgence of unwanted negative thoughts . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. , 55 : 882 – 892 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wertz , C. 2003 . Instructional plan: Student teacher blues Unpublished manuscript
   Google Scholar
• Wheatley , T. and Wegner , D. M. 2001 . “ Automaticity of action, Psychology of ” . In International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences , Edited by: Smelser , N. J. and Baltes , P. B. 991 – 993 . Oxford , , UK : Elsevier Science .
   Google Scholar
• Wideen , M. , Mayer-Smith , J. and Moon , B. 1998 . A critical analysis of the research on learning to teach: Making the case for an ecological perspective on inquiry . Review of Educational Research. , 68 : 130 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , S. , Floden , R. and Ferrini-Mundy , J. 2001 . Teacher preparation research: Current knowledge, gaps, and recommendations , Seattle : Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, University of Washington .
   Google Scholar
• Winther , A. A. , Volk , T. L. and Shrock , S. A. 2002 . Teacher decision making in the 1st year of implementing an issues-based environmental education program: A qualitative study . The Journal of Environmental Education , 33 ( 3 ) : 27 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Zeichner , K. M. 2003 . The adequacies and inadequacies of three current strategies to recruit, prepare, and retain the best teachers for all students . Teachers College Record. , 105 : 490 – 519 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeichner , K. M. and Conklin , H. G. 2005 . “ Teachers education programs ” . In Studying teachers education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education , Edited by: Cochran-Smith , M. and Zeichner , K. M. Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar