809
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Tetanus prophylaxis in horses: guidelines for New Zealand and Australia based on a critical appraisal of the evidence

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , , , , ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Received 18 Jun 2023, Accepted 19 May 2024, Published online: 23 Jun 2024

References

  • *AAEP. Core Vaccination Guidelines: Tetanus. https://aaep.org/guidelines/vaccination-guidelines/core-vaccination-guidelines/tetanus (accessed 1 May 2024). American Association of Equine Practitioners, Lexington, KY, USA, 2021
  • *Anonymous. Veterinarians Act 2005. New Zealand Government Printer, Wellington, NZ, 2005
  • *Anonymous. Veterinary Practice Act 2018. Parliamentary Counsel, Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2018
  • *Anonymous. Australian Immunisation Handbook – Tetanus. https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/tetanus#overview (accessed 5 March 2024). Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care. Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2023
  • Barquero N, Gilkerson JR, Newton JR. Evidence-based immunization in horses. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice 23, 481–508, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2007.04.003
  • *Basta NE, Borrow R, Miller E. World Health Organization Immunological Basis for Immunization Series Module 3: Tetanus. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241513616 (accessed 13 May 2024). World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2018
  • Bergey D, Etris S. Active immunization against tetanus infection with refined tetanus toxoid. The Journal of Immunology 31, 363–71, 1936. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.31.5.363
  • Borghesi J, Mario LC, Rodrigues MN, Favaron PO, Miglino MA. Immunoglobulin transport during gestation in domestic animals and humans – a review. Open Journal of Animal Sciences 4, 323, 2014. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojas.2014.45041
  • Chodnik J, Watson A, Hepple J. Active immunisation of sheep and horses against tetanus with aluminium hydroxyde-adsorbed toxoid. Veterinary Record 71, 904–8, 1959
  • Cook T, Protheroe R, Handel J. Tetanus: a review of the literature. British Journal of Anaesthesia 87, 477–87, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/87.3.477
  • Cooke JV, Jones F. The duration of passive tetanus immunity: and its effect on active immunization with tetanus toxoid. Journal of the American Medical Association 121, 1201–9, 1943. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1943.02840150015005
  • Corrado A, Carta L. Tetanus vaccination of foals having maternal antibodies. La Nuova Veterinaria 40, 240–5, 1964
  • Cullinane A, Weld J, Osborne M, Nelly M, McBride C, Walsh C. Field studies on equine influenza vaccination regimes in thoroughbred foals and yearlings. The Veterinary Journal 161, 174–85, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1053/tvjl.2000.0546
  • Davis EG, Bello N, Bryan A, Hankins K, Wilkerson M. Characterisation of immune responses in healthy foals when a multivalent vaccine protocol was initiated at age 90 or 180 days. Equine Veterinary Journal 47, 667–74, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12350
  • de Melo UP, Ferreira C. Clinical findings and response to treatment of 17 cases of tetanus in horses (2012–2021). Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 44, e005321, 2022. https://doi.org/10.29374/2527-2179.bjvm005321
  • Dennis S, El Hage C, Brookes V. A survey of veterinarians’ practices, recommendations and perceptions associated with the prevention of tetanus in horses in Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal 100, 181–6, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13144
  • DeNotta S, McFarlane D. Immunosenescence and inflammaging in the aged horse. Immunity & Ageing 20, 2, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12979-022-00325-5
  • Desanti-Consoli H, Bouillon J, Chapuis RJ. Equids’ core vaccines guidelines in North America: considerations and prospective. Vaccines 10, 398, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10030398
  • Divers TJ, Tennant BC, Kumar A, McDonough S, Cullen J, Bhuva N, Jain K, Chauhan LS, Scheel TKH, Lipkin WI. New parvovirus associated with serum hepatitis in horses after inoculation of common biological product. Emerging Infectious Diseases 24, 303, 2018. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2402.171031
  • Divers TJ, Tomlinson JE, Tennant BC. The history of Theiler’s disease and the search for its aetiology. The Veterinary Journal 287, 105878, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2022.105878
  • Duchen LW, Tonge DA. The effects of tetanus toxin on neuromuscular transmission and on the morphology of motor end-plates in slow and fast skeletal muscle of the mouse. Journal of Physiology 228, 157–72, 1973. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1973.sp010078
  • Edsall G. Current status of tetanus immunization. Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal 8, 731–41, 1964. https://doi.org/10.1080/00039896.1964.10663744
  • *Equiplas. Equiplas Product Information. https://plasvacc.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/PV-USA-2023-Product-Sheet-Equine-Final-WEB.pdf (accessed 13 November 2023). Plasvacc USA Inc., Templeton, CA, USA, 2023
  • Flaminio MJB, Rush BR, Davis EG, Hennessy K, Shuman W, Wilkerson MJ. Characterization of peripheral blood and pulmonary leukocyte function in healthy foals. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 73, 267–85, 2000. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2427(00)00149-5
  • Fortier C, El-Hage C, Hue E, Sutton G, Marcillaud-Pitel C, Jeffers K, Bamford N, Oden E, Paillot R, Hartley C, et al. Hepatitis viruses: prevalence of equine parvovirus-hepatitis virus and equine hepacivirus in France and Australia. Equine Veterinary Journal 53, 68, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.103_13495
  • Green SL, Little CB, Baird JD, Tremblay RR, Smith-Maxie LL. Tetanus in the horse: a review of 20 cases (1970 to 1990). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 8, 128–32, 1994. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.1994.tb03210.x
  • Heldens J, Pouwels H, Derks C, Van de Zande S, Hoeijmakers M. Duration of immunity induced by an equine influenza and tetanus combination vaccine formulation adjuvanted with ISCOM-Matrix. Vaccine 28, 6989–96, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.08.043
  • Jacks S, Giguère S. Effects of inoculum size on cell-mediated and humoral immune responses of foals experimentally infected with Rhodococcus equi: a pilot study. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 133, 282–6, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.08.004
  • Jansen B, Knoetze P. The immune response of horses to tetanus toxoid. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 46, 211–6, 1979
  • Jeffcott L. Studies on passive immunity in the foal: I. γ-Globulin and antibody variations associated with the maternal transfer of immunity and the onset of active immunity. Journal of Comparative Pathology 84, 93–101, 1974. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9975(74)90031-0
  • Kay G, Knottenbelt D. Tetanus in equids: a report of 56 cases. Equine Veterinary Education 19, 107–12, 2007. https://doi.org/10.2746/095777307X181320
  • Kay G, Souhail M, Mazan M. Recurrent tetanus in a donkey. Equine Veterinary Education 34, e418–e421, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1111/eve.13580
  • Kendall A, Anagrius K, Gånheim A, Rosanowski S, Bergström K. Duration of tetanus immunoglobulin G titres following basic immunisation of horses. Equine Veterinary Journal 48, 710–3, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12502
  • Korger G, Quast U, Dechert G. Tetanusimpfung – Verträglichkeit und Vermeidung von Nebenreaktionen [Tetanus vaccination – tolerance and avoidance of side reactions]. Journal of Molecular Medicine 64, 767–75, 1986. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01732184
  • Lalli G, Bohnert S, Deinhardt K, Verastegui C, Schiavo G. The journey of tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins in neurons. Trends in Microbiology 11, 431–7, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-842X(03)00210-5
  • Lambo JA, Anokye EA. Prognostic factors for mortality in neonatal tetanus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 17, e1100–e1110, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2013.05.016
  • *LeBlanc M. Responses to plasma transfusion in clinically healthy and clinically ill foals. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, 1988
  • Levine L, Stone JL, Wyman L. Factors affecting the efficiency of the aluminum adjuvant in diphtheria and tetanus toxoids. The Journal of Immunology 75, 301–7, 1955. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.75.4.301
  • *Liefman CE. Active and passive immunisation of the horse against tetanus. PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia, 1977
  • Liefman C. Combined active-passive immunisation of horses against tetanus. Australian Veterinary Journal 56, 119–22, 1980. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1980.tb05647.x
  • Liefman C. Active immunisation of horses against tetanus including the booster dose and its application. Australian Veterinary Journal 57, 57–60, 1981. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.1981.tb00444.x
  • Liepman R, Dembek K, Slovis N, Reed S, Toribio RE. Validation of IgG cut-off values and their association with survival in neonatal foals. Equine Veterinary Journal 47, 526–30, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12428
  • Liu I, Brown S, Kuo J, Neeley D, Feeley J. Duration of maternally derived immunity to tetanus and response in newborn foals given tetanus antitoxin. American Journal of Veterinary Research 43, 2019–22, 1982
  • Löhrer J, Radvila P. Active tetanus prophylaxis in the horse and the duration of immunity. Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde 112, 307–14, 1970
  • Lopez AM, Hines MT, Palmer GH, Knowles DP, Alperin DC, Hines SA. Analysis of anamnestic immune responses in adult horses and priming in neonates induced by a DNA vaccine expressing the vapA gene of Rhodococcus equi. Vaccine 21, 3815–25, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00329-3
  • Mason J, Schaafsma A. The active immunization of the horse against tetanus. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 33, 589–91, 1962
  • Meister TL, Tegtmeyer B, Brüggemann Y, Sieme H, Feige K, Todt D, Stang A, Cavalleri J-M, Steinmann E. Characterization of equine parvovirus in Thoroughbred breeding horses from Germany. Viruses 11, 965, 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/v11100965
  • Muylle E, Oyaert W, Ooms L, Decraemere H. Treatment of tetanus in the horse by injections of tetanus antitoxin into the subarachnoid space. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 167, 47–8, 1975
  • *NOAH. Tetanus Antitoxin Behring IU. https://www.noahcompendium.co.uk/?id=-456172&fromsearch=true#iosfirsthighlight (accessed 11 June 2023). National Office of Animal Health, Enfield, UK, 2021
  • *Nowlan M. Review of Evidence to Inform the New Zealand National Immunisation Schedule, 2019: Tetanus. Immunisation Advisory Centre, Auckland, NZ, 2019
  • Perkins G, Wagner B. The development of equine immunity: current knowledge on immunology in the young horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 47, 267–74, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12387
  • Perryman L, McGuire T, Torbeck R. Ontogeny of lymphocyte function in the equine fetus. American Journal of Veterinary Research 41, 1197–200, 1980
  • *Pfizer. Equine Infectious Diseases Advisory Board Vaccination Guidelines. https://www.awha.com.au/Controls/ViewAttachment.aspx?ID=1986 (accessed 6 November 2023). Pfizer Animal Health, Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2012
  • Popoff MR. Tetanus in animals. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 32, 184–91, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638720906814
  • Ramon G. L'anatoxine tétanique et la prophylaxie du tétanos chez l'homme et chez les animaux domestiques [Tetanus toxoid and tetanus prophylaxis in man and domestic animals]. La Presse Médicale 44, 1625–8, 1936
  • Recknagel S, Snyder A, Brueser B, Schusser GF. Immunization strategies and seroprotection against tetanus in horses in central Germany. Pferdeheilkunde 31, 469–76, 2015a. https://doi.org/10.21836/PEM20150506
  • Recknagel S, Snyder A, Blanke A, Uhlig A, Brüser B, Schusser GF. Evaluation of an immunochromatographic dipstick test for the assessment of tetanus immunity in horses. Berliner und Munchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 128, 376–83, 2015b
  • Reichmann P, Lisboa J, Araujo R. Tetanus in equids: a review of 76 cases. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 28, 518–23, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2008.07.019
  • Ribeiro MG, de Nardi Júnior G, Megid J, Franco MMJ, Guerra ST, Portilho FVR, Rodrigues SA, Paes AC. Tetanus in horses: an overview of 70 cases. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 38, 285–93, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-5441
  • Rogers C, Gee E, Firth E. A cross-sectional survey of Thoroughbred stud farm management in the North Island of New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 55, 302–7, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2007.36785
  • Ryan C, Giguère S. Equine neonates have attenuated humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to a killed adjuvanted vaccine compared to adult horses. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 17, 1896–902, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00328-10
  • Saxinger G, Heinig A. Duration of immunity in horses and sheep after a single injection of tetanus toxoid aluminium hydroxide vaccine. Monatshefte für Veterinärmedizin 6, 434–7, 1951
  • Scarnell J. Recall of immunity in horses previously immunised with an aluminium based tetanus toxoid. Veterinary Record 95, 62–3, 1974. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.95.3.62
  • Schofield F. Selective primary health care: strategies for control of disease in the developing world. XXII. Tetanus: a preventable problem. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 8, 144–56, 1986. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/8.1.144
  • Sellon DC. Secondary immunodeficiencies of horses. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice 16, 117–30, 2000. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30122-0
  • Sneath P, Kerslake E, Scruby F. Tetanus immunity: the resistance of Guinea pigs to lethal spore doses induced by active and passive immunization. American Journal of Hygiene 25, 464–76, 1937. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a118318
  • Sole A, Bolwell C, Dart A, Riley C, Theoret C. Descriptive survey of wounds in horses presented to Australian veterinarians. Australian Equine Veterinarian 34, 68–74, 2015
  • Sponseller B, De Macedo M, Clark S, Gallup J, Jones D. Activation of peripheral blood monocytes results in more robust production of IL-10 in neonatal foals compared to adult horses. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 127, 167–73, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.09.013
  • Sturgill TL, Horohov DW. Vaccination response of young foals to keyhole limpet hemocyanin: evidence of effective priming in the presence of maternal antibodies. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 30, 359–64, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2010.05.008
  • Thein P, Röhm A Jr, Voss J. Experimental investigations to the immune response of foals and adult horses to tetanus toxoid using the Fassisi TetaCheck. Pferdeheilkunde 29, 686–99, 2013. https://doi.org/10.21836/PEM20130601
  • Theoret C, Bolwell C, Riley C. A cross-sectional survey on wounds in horses in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 64, 90–4, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2015.1091396
  • *Trinca JC. CSL Medical Handbook. Fifth Edtn. Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 1979
  • Van Galen G, Saegerman C, Rijckaert J, Amory H, Armengou L, Bezdekova B, Durie I, Findshøj Delany R, Fouché N, Haley L. Retrospective evaluation of 155 adult equids and 21 foals with tetanus in Western, Northern, and Central Europe (2000–2014). Part 1: description of history and clinical evolution. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care 27, 684–96, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1111/vec.12668
  • Wagner B, Burton A, Ainsworth D. Interferon-gamma, interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 production by T helper cells reveals intact Th1 and regulatory TR1 cell activation and a delay of the Th2 cell response in equine neonates and foals. Veterinary Research 41, 47, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1051/vetres/2010019
  • Wilkins CA, Richter MB, Hobbs WB, Whitcomb M, Bergh N, Carstens J. Occurrence of Clostridium tetani in soil and horses. South African Medical Journal 73, 718–20, 1988
  • Wilkins PA, Dewan-Mix S. Efficacy of intravenous plasma to transfer passive immunity in clinically healthy and clinically ill equine neonates with failure of passive transfer. The Cornell Veterinarian 84, 7–14, 1994
  • Wilson W, Mihalyi J, Hussey S, Lunn D. Passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulin isotype antibodies against tetanus and influenza and their effect on the response of foals to vaccination. Equine Veterinary Journal 33, 644–50, 2001. https://doi.org/10.2746/042516401776249435
  • *Wilson WD. Assessment of vaccination status and susceptibility to infection. In: Pusterla N, Higgins J (eds). Interpretation of Equine Laboratory Diagnostics. Pp 227–41. John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118922798.ch40
  • *Wilson WD, Pusterla N, Long DC. Immunoprophylaxis. In: Long MT, Sellon DC (eds). Equine Infectious Diseases. Second Edtn. Pp 551–70. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-0891-8.00064-6
  • Wolters K, Dehmel H. Active immunization against tetanus. Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten 124, 326–32, 1942. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02178438
  • Zimmermann P, Curtis N. Factors that influence the immune response to vaccination. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 32, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00084-18
  • *Zoetis. Equine Vaccination Guidelines for New Zealand. https://www.zoetis.co.nz/tools/equine-vaccination-guidelines/equine-vaccination-guidelines.aspx (accessed 13 November 2023). Zoetis New Zealand Ltd., Auckland, NZ, 2014
  • *Zoetis. When Should I Vaccinate My Horses? https://www.health4horses.com.au/health-care/preventative-care/eidab-chart-v2.pdf (accessed 13 November 2023). Zoetis Australia Pty Ltd., Rhodes, NSW, Australia, 2016
  • *Non-peer-reviewed