Constellations of practice in copper ingots from Zambia and northern Zimbabwe, cal. AD 500–1700

References

• Anciaux de Faveaux, E. and de Maret, P.D. 1980. “Vestiges de l’âge du fer dans les environs de Lubumbashi.” Africa-Tervuren 26: 13–19.
   Google Scholar
• Anciaux de Faveaux, E. and de Maret, P.D. 1984. “Premières datations pour la fonte du cuivre au Shaba (Zaïre).” Bulletin de la Société Royale Belge d’Anthropologie et de Prehistoire Bruxelles 95: 5–20.
   Google Scholar
• Arazi, N., Livingstone Smith, A. and Muya Wa Bitanko Kamuanga, D. 2012. Tenke Fungurume Mining Oxide Project (TFM-OP) Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Cultural Heritage Specialist Study. Brussels: Heritage Management Services.
   Google Scholar
• Bandama, F. 2013. “The archaeology and technology of metal production in the Late Iron Age of the Southern Waterberg, Limpopo Province.” PhD diss., University of Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Bandama, F., Moffett, A.J., Thondhlana, T.P. and Chirikure, S. 2016. “The production, distribution and consumption of metals and alloys at Great Zimbabwe.” Archaeometry 58: 164–181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bent, J. 1896. The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland: Being a Record of Excavation and Exploration in 1891. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
   Google Scholar
• Bisson, M.S. 1975. “Copper currency in central Africa: the archaeological evidence.” World Archaeology 6: 276–292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisson, M.S. 1976. “The prehistoric copper mines of Zambia.” PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara.
   Google Scholar
• Bisson, M.S. 1982. “Trade and tribute. archaeological evidence for the origin of states in south Central Africa (Commerce et tribut. Documents archéologiques sur l’origine des États du sud de l’Afrique centrale).” Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines 22: 343–361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisson, M.S. 2000. “Precolonial copper metallurgy: sociopolitical context.” In Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context, edited by J.O. Vogel, 83–146. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek.
   Google Scholar
• Bushnell, G.H.S. 1969. “Woven textiles and cords from Ingombe Ilede.” In Iron Age Cultures in Zambia, Volume 2, edited by B.M. Fagan, 243–246. London: Chatto and Windus.
   Google Scholar
• Caton-Thompson, G. 1931. The Zimbabwe Culture: Ruins and Reactions. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chirikure, S. 2014. “Land and sea links: 1500 years of connectivity between southern Africa and the Indian Ocean Rim regions, AD 700 to 1700.” African Archaeological Review 31: 705–724.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chirikure, S. 2020. Great Zimbabwe: Reclaiming a ‘Confiscated’ Past. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Chirikure, S., Bandama, F., Hall, S.L., Killick, D.J., Mathoho, N.E., Nkhasi-Leosana, Rosenstein, D. D. and Thondhlana, T.P. in press. “Dispersed craft production systems at Rooiberg, ca. 1200–1850, and broader implications for southern African history.” Southern African Humanities.
   Google Scholar
• Chirikure, S., Mukwende, T., Moffett, A.J., Nyamushosho, R.T., Bandama, F. and House, M. 2018. “No big brother here: heterarchy, Shona political succession and the relationship between Great Zimbabwe and Khami, southern Africa.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 28: 45–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole-King, P. 1973. Kukumba Mbiri mu Malawi: A Summary of Archaeological Research to 1973. Zomba: Malawi Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Craddock, P.T. and Meeks, N.D. 1987. “Iron in ancient copper.” Archaeometry 29: 187–204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels, S. 1967. “A note on the Iron Age material from Kamusongolwa Kopje, Zambia.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 22: 142–150.
   Google Scholar
• de Hemptinne, M. 1926. “Les mangeurs de cuivre au Katanga.” Congo 1: 371–403.
   Google Scholar
• de Luna, K.M. 2016. Collecting Food, Cultivating People: Subsistence and Society in Central Africa. New Haven: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• de Maret, P. 1981. “L’évolution monétaire du Shaba entre le 7e et le 18e siècle.” African Economic History 10: 117–149.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Maret, P. 1995. “Croisette histories.” In Objects-Signs of Africa, edited by L. de Heusch, 133–145. Ghent: Snoeck Ducaju & Zoon.
   Google Scholar
• de Maret, P. 2013. “Recent farming communities and states in the Congo Basin and its environs.” In The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology, edited by P.J. Mitchell and P.J. Lane, 875–886. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• de Maret, P. 2019. “Upemba archaeology, Luba ethnography, and vice versa.” In Cognitive Archaeology: Mind, Ethnography, and the Past in South Africa and Beyond, edited by D Whitley, J.N.H. Loubser and G. Whitelaw, 224–246. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• de Putter, T., Mees, F., Decrèe, S. and Dewaele, S. 2010. “Malachite, an indicator of major Pliocene Cu remobilization in a karstic environment (Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo).” Ore Geology Reviews 38: 90–100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietler, M. and Herbich, I. 1998. “Habitus, techniques, style: an integrated approach to the social understanding of material culture and boundaries.” In The Archaeology of Social Boundaries, edited by M.T. Stark, 232–263. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dobres, M.-A. and Hoffman, C.R. 1994. “Social agency and the dynamics of prehistoric technology.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1: 211–258.
   Google Scholar
• Fagan, B.M. 1969. “Early trade and raw materials in south central Africa.” Journal of African History 10: 1–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagan, B.M., Phillipson, D.W. and Daniels, S.G.H. 1969. Iron Age Cultures in Zambia, Volume II: Dambwa, Ingombe Ilede, and the Tonga. London: Chatto & Windus.
   Google Scholar
• Frame, L. 2009. “Technological change in southwestern Asia: metallurgical production styles and social values during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age.” PhD diss, University of Arizona, Tucson.
   Google Scholar
• Garlake, P.S. 1970. “Iron Age sites in the Urungwe District of Rhodesia.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 25: 25–44.
   Google Scholar
• Garlake, P.S. 1973. Great Zimbabwe. London: Thames and Hudson.
   Google Scholar
• Gifford-Gonzalez, D. 2000. “Animal disease challenges to the emergence of pastoralism in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Archaeological Review 17: 95–139.
   Google Scholar
• Gosselain, O.P. 2000. “Materializing identities: an African perspective.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 7: 187–217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosselain, O.P. 2010. “Exploring the dynamics of African pottery cultures.” In The Archaeology of Regional Technologies: Case Studies from the Palaeolithic to the Age of the Vikings, edited by R. Barndon, A. Engevik and I. Øye, 193–224. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gosselain, O.P. 2016. “Commentary: on fluxes, connections and their archaeological manifestations.” In Human Mobility and Technological Transfer in the Prehistoric Mediterranean, edited by E. Kiriatzi and C. Knappett, 194–206. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gosselain, O.P. 2017. “A tradition in nine maps: un-layering Niger River polychrome water jars.” In Balkan Dialogues: Negotiating Identity Between Prehistory and the Present, edited by M. Gori and M. Ivanova, 85–108. Milton Park: Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Grollemund, R., Branford, S., Bostoen, K., Meade, A., Venditti, C. and Pagel, M. 2015. “Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112: 13296–13301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, R.N. 1905. Great Zimbabwe, Mashonaland, Rhodesia: An Account of Two Years’ Examination Work in 1902-4 on Behalf of the Government of Rhodesia. London: Methuen and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, R.N. 1909. Prehistoric Rhodesia: An Examination of the Historical, Ethnological and Archæological Evidences as to the Origin and Age of the Rock Mines and Stone Buildings, with a Gazetteer of Mediæval South-east Africa, 915 AD to 1760 AD, and the Countries of the Monomotapa, Manica, Sabia, Quiteve, Sofala, and Mozambique. London: Unwin.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, R.N. and Neal, W.G. 1902. The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia: (Monomotapæ Imperium). London: Methuen & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Hauptmann, A. 2014. “The investigation of archaeometallurgical slag.” In Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, edited by B.W. Roberts and C.P. Thornton, 91–105. New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Herbert, E. 1984. Red Gold of Africa: Copper in Precolonial History and Culture. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Huffman, T.N. 1971. “A guide to the Iron Age of Mashonaland.” Occasional Papers of the National Museum of Rhodesia 4: 20–44.
   Google Scholar
• Huffman, T.N. 1989. “Ceramics, settlements and late Iron Age migrations.” African Archaeological Review 7: 155–182.
   Google Scholar
• Huffman, T.N. 2007. Handbook to the Iron Age: The Archaeology of Pre-Colonial Farming Societies in Southern Africa. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
   Google Scholar
• Huffman, T.N. 2021. “The origins of ‘Musengezi’: local versus central African.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 76: 16–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juwayeyi, Y.M. 2010. “Archaeological excavations at Mankhamba, Malawi: an early settlement site of the Maravi.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 45: 175–202.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Juwayeyi, Y.M. 2020. Archaeology and Oral Tradition in Malawi: Origins and Early History of the Chewa. Cape Town: UCT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Killick, D.J. 2004. “Social constructionist approaches to the study of technology.” World Archaeology 36: 571–578.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lave, J., and Wenger, E. 1991. Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Learning in Doing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lechtman, H.N. 1977. “Style in technology — some early thoughts.” In Material Culture: Styles, Organization, and Dynamics of Technology, edited by H.N. Lechtman and R. Merrill, 3–20. Boston: West Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• Lemonnier, P. 1993. Technological Choices: Transformation in Material Cultures Since the Neolithic. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Livingstone, D., and Livingstone, C. 1866. Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi and its Tribu­taries. London: John Murray.
   Google Scholar
• McIntosh, S.K. and Fagan, B.M. 2017. “Re-dating the Ingombe Ilede burials.” Antiquity 91: 1069–1077.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D.E. 1994. “Kaonde copper smelting: technical versatility and the ethnographic record.” In Society, Culture and Technology in Africa, edited by S.T. Childs, 79–85. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, D.E. 2001. “Metal assemblages from the Greefswald areas: K2, Mapungubwe Hill and Mapungubwe Southern Terrace.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 56: 83–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D.E. and Killick, D.J. 2004. “Slag identification at southern African archaeological sites.” Journal of African Archaeology 2: 23–48.
   Google Scholar
• Mills, B.J. 2016. “Communities of consumption: cuisines and constellated networks of situated practice.” In: Knowledge in Motion: Constellations of Learning Across Time and Place, edited by A. Roddick and A.B. Stahl, 247–270. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nikis, N. 2023. “Central African Copper.” In: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology.
   Google Scholar
• Nikis, N. and Livingstone Smith, A. 2017. “Copper, trade and polities: exchange networks in southern Central Africa in the 2nd millennium CE.” Journal of Southern African Studies 43: 895–911.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pawlowicz, M., Fleisher, J. and de Luna, K.D. 2020. “Capturing people on the move: spatial analysis and remote sensing in the Bantu Mobility Project, Basanga, Zambia.” In Spatial Approaches in African Archaeology, edited by C. Gokee and C. Klehm, 69–93. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
   Google Scholar
• Phillipson, D.W. 1972. “Early Iron Age sites on the Zambian Copperbelt.” Azania 7: 93–128.
   Google Scholar
• Phillipson, D.W. 1974. “Iron Age history and archaeology in Zambia.” Journal of African History 15: 1–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phiri, K.M. 1988. “Pre-colonial states of central Malaŵi: towards a reconstruction of their history.” The Society of Malawi Journal 41: 1–29.
   Google Scholar
• Pikirayi, I. 2001. The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pikirayi, I. 2013. “The Zimbabwe Culture and its neighbours: origins, development, and consequences of social complexity in southern Africa.” The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology, edited by P.J. Mitchell and P.J. Lane, 915–927. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Prendergast, M.D. 1979. “Cornucopia: phase 1 Zimbabwe stone buildings associated with an Iron Age tin mine.” Rhodesian Prehistory 17: 11–16.
   Google Scholar
• Rademakers, F.W., Nikis, N., De Putter, T. and Degryse, P. 2019. “Provenancing Central African copper croisettes: a first chemical and lead isotope characterisation of currencies in Central and southern Africa.” Journal of Archaeological Science 111: 105010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reefe, T. 1981. The Rainbow and the Kings: A History of the Luba Empire to 1891. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roddick, A. and Stahl, A.B. (eds) 2016. Knowledge in Motion: Constellations of Learning Across Time and Place. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schoenbrun, D.L. 2022. “Vashambadzi: the coast walkers.” Radical History Review 144: 173–203.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenbrun, D.L. 2016. “Pythons worked: constellating communities of practice with conceptual metaphor in northern Lake Victoria, ca. A.D. 800–1200.” Knowledge in Motion: Constellations of Learning Across Time and Place, edited by A. Roddick and A. Stahl, 216–246. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Searsey, D., Forsythe, M. and Lipton, E. 2021. “Race to the future: a power struggle over cobalt rattles the clean energy revolution.” New York Times 20 November 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Stephens, J.A., Killick, D.J. and Chirikure, S. 2023. “Reconstructing the geological provenance and long-distance movement of croisette copper ingots in Iron Age Zambia and Zimbabwe.” PLoS ONE 18: e0282660.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, J.A., Killick, D.J., Wilmsen, E.N., Denbow, J.A. and Miller, D.A. 2020. “Lead isotopes link copper artefacts from northwestern Botswana to the Copperbelt of Katanga Province, Congo.” Journal of Archaeological Science 117: 105124.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summers, R. 1969. Ancient Mining in Rhodesia and Adjacent Areas. Bulawayo: Trustees of the National Museums of Rhodesia.
   Google Scholar
• Sutherland-Harris, N. 1970. “Zambian trade with Zumbo in the eighteenth century”. In Pre-Colonial African Trade: Essays on Trade in Central and Eastern Africa Before 1900, edited by J.R. Gray and D. Birmingham, 243–264. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Swan, L.M. 2002. “Excavations at Copper Queen mine, northwestern Zimbabwe.” South African Archaeological Bulletin 57: 64–79.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swan, L.M. 2007. “Economic and ideological roles of copper ingots in prehistoric Zimbabwe.” Antiquity 81: 999–1012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Merwe, N.J and Scully, R.T. 1971. “The Phalaborwa story: archaeological and enthnographic investigation of a South African iron age group.” World Archaeology 3: 178–196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Waarden, C. 2010. “Butua and the end of an era. The effect of the collapse of the Kalanga state on ordinary citizens: an analysis of behaviour under stress.” PhD diss, State University of New York, Binghamton.
   Google Scholar
• van Waarden, C. 2016. “Prehistoric copper mining in Botswana.” In Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, edited by H. Selin, 3565–3576. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Vansina, J. 1962. “Long-distance trade-routes in Central Africa.” Journal of African History 3: 375–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vansina, J. 1967. Kingdoms of the Savannah. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vansina, J. 1969. “The bells of kings.” The Journal of African History 10: 187–197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel, J.O. 1971. Kumadzulo: An Early Iron Age Village Site in Southern Zambia. Lusaka: National Museums of Zambia.
   Google Scholar
• Vogel, J.O. 1975. “Kabondo Kumbo and the Early Iron Age in Victoria Falls region.” Azania 10: 49–75.
   Google Scholar
• Wallaert, H. 2012. “Apprenticeship and the confirmation of social boundaries.” In Archaeology and Apprenticeship: Body Knowledge, Identity, and Communities of Practice, edited by W. Wendrich, 20–42. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wendrich, W. 2012a. “Archaeology and apprenticeship: body knowledge, identity, and communities of practice” In Archaeology and Apprenticeship: Body Knowledge, Identity, and Communities of Practice, edited by W. Wendrich, 1–19. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wendrich, W. 2012b. “Recognizing knowledge transfer in the archaeological record.” In Archaeology and Apprenticeship: Body Knowledge, Identity, and Communities of Practice, edited by W. Wendrich, 255–262. Tucson, University of Arizona Press.
   Google Scholar
• Walton, J. 1955. “Iron gongs from the Congo and Southern Rhodesia.” Man 55: 20–23.
   Google Scholar
• Walton, J. 1957. “Some features of the Monomotapa culture.” In Proceedings of the Third Pan-African Congress on Prehistory, edited by J.D. Clark, 344–348. London: Chatto & Windus.
   Google Scholar
• Wenger, E. 1998. Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity, Learning in Doing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• White, J.D. 1970. “Some notes on the history and customs of the Urungwe district.” NADA: The Southern Rhodesian Native Affairs Department Annual 10: 33–72.
   Google Scholar