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Nationalities Papers
The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity
Volume 29, 2001 - Issue 4
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Original Articles

The politics of ethnic cleansing: The P.P.R., The P.Z.Z. and Wielkopolska's nationalist revolution, 1944‐1946

Pages 575-603 | Published online: 19 Aug 2010

References

  • Polubiec , Zofia , ed. 1984 . Polska Portia Robotnicza: dokumenty programowe 1942-1948 , 279 – 299 . Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza . Wlatislaw Gomulka. Excerpt from a paper of the Secretary of the Central Committee of the P.P.R. entitled A New Situation, New Tasks: Poland's Situation and the Tasks of Our Party in the Second Stage of the Country's Liberation," presented to an enlarged Plenum of the Central Committee of the Polish Workers' Party on 6 February 1945. Quoted in; Unless otherwise noted, all translations from Polish are the author's
  • Gross , Jan . 2000 . “ 'Themes for a Social History of War Experience and Collaboration" ” . In The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War JJ and Its Aftermath , Edited by: Deák , István , Gross , Jan T. and Judt , Tony . 22 Princeton : Princeton University Press . Jan Gross calls the social and cultural meaning and impact of exile as one of the largely unexplored "grand themes" of East Central European history
  • Naimark , Norman . 2001 . Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe , Cambridge : MA: Harvard University Press .
  • Sakson , Andrzej . 1996 . "Socjologiczne Problemy Wysiedlen ” . In Utracona Ojczyzna: Przymusowe deportacje i przesiedlenia jako wspolne doswiadczenie , Edited by: Orlowski , Hubert and Sakson , Andrej . 158 – 159 . Poznan : Instytut Zachodni . For Poland alone this included not only the expulsion of over 3.5 million Germans then living within the country's newly reconfigured borders, but also the removal of over half a million Ukrainians, Byelorussians, and Lithuanians to the Soviet Union and the additional deportation of over 140,000 Ukrainians from their homes in eastern Poland to Poland's newly annexed Recovered Territories
  • Siebel-Achenbach , Sebastian . 1994 . Lower Silesia from Nazi Germany to Communist Poland 1942-49 , 86 – 90 . Hong Kong : St Martin's Press . Sakson's figures exclude millions of Germans who fled the Soviet wartime advance and were prevented by the Polish government from returning to their homes. Thus the number of Germans expelled from their homes in Poland's Oder-Neisse territories (as well as Poland's pre-war German minority) totaled over ten million people
  • Siebel-Achenbach . Lavier Silesia, chapters 3, 5 9 86 – 90 . For a full discussion of the diplomatic maneuvers surrounding the redrawing of Poland and Germany's political and ethnographic frontiers
  • Gross , Jan . 1997 . "War as Revolution" ” . In The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944-1949 , Edited by: Naimark , Norman and Gibianskii , Leonid . 23 Boulder : Westview Press .
  • Musielak , Michal . 1986 . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 1944-1950 , 26 – 33 . Warsaw : Panstwowe Wydaw-nictwo Naukowe .
  • Blanke , Richard . 1993 . Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918-1939 , 94 – 95 . 98 – 99 . Lexington : University Press of Kentucky .
  • Kwilecki , Andzej and Tomaszewski , W/adyslw . 1980 . “ Poznan Jako Osrodek Polskiej MySIi Zachodniej w Dwudziestoleciu Miedzywojennym ” . In Polska Mysl Zachodnia w Poznaniu i Wielkopolsce: Jej rozwój i realizacja w wiekach xix i xx , Edited by: Kwilecki , Andrzej . 173 Warsaw : Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe .
  • Blanke , Richard . 1981 . Prussian Poland in the German Empire , 216 – 218 . Boulder : East European Monographs .
  • Giertych , Jedrzej . 1947 . PoI Wieku Polskiej Polityki: Uwagi o polityce Dmowskiego i polityce polskiej lot 1919-1939 i 1939-1947 15 – 36 . London
  • Blanke . Orphans of Versailles 60 – 61 . 200 – 202 . 215 225
  • Wynot , Edward . 1973 . Polish Politics in Transition: The Camp of National Unity and the Struggle for Power, 1935-1939 , 29 Athens , GA : University of Georgia Press .
  • Blanke . Orphans of Versailles 200 216
  • "A Memorial on the Aims and Tasks of the Polish Western Union, May 1945" . Wojewódzkie Archiwum Panstwowe w Poznaniu (henceforth WAPP) Polski Zwiazek Zachodni (henceforth PZZ) , 589 1
  • Werblan , Andrej . 1988 . Wladyslaw Gomulka Sekretarz Generalny PPR , 542 – 558 . 600 Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza .
  • Marczak , Tadeusz . 1988 . Propaganda Polityczna Stronnictw Przed Referendum z 30 VI1946 R. , 40 Wroclaw : Wydawnictwo Uniwersytet Wroc/awskiego .
  • Kotowski , Wojciech . 1992 . “ Lojalizm czy iredenta? Mniejszosc niemiecka wobec pahstwa polskiego w latach 1919-1939 ” . In Polska-Polacy-Mniejszosci Narodowe , Edited by: Wrzesinski . 31 – 52 . 53 – 64 . Wroclaw : Zakfad Narodowy imienia Ossolinskich Wydawnictwo . Germans made up over 300,000 of the province's almost five million inhabitants by 1931 and were a commanding, if often deeply anti-Polish, presence in much of Wielkopolska's economic and cultural life throughout the interwar period. Przemysfaw Hauser, Mniejszosc Niemiecka w Polsce w Latach 1918-1939, and
  • Kwilecki and Tomaszewski . “ Poznan Jako Osrodek Polskiej Mysli Zachodniej ” . In Polska Mysl Zachodnia Edited by: Kwilecki . 129 – 184 .
  • Erazmus , Eduard . 1970 . Referendum i wybory w wojewodztwie Poznans kirn w latach 1946-1947 , 16 – 18 . 25 – 26 . Poznan : Uniwersytet im. A. Miczkiwicza .
  • Gomulka . 1971 . O Problemie Niemieckim: artykuly i przemówienia , 12 Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza . The Struggle and Self-Defense of the People in Relation to the Terror of the Occupation, in a paper read to the First Plenary Session of the National Homeland Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa, K.R.N.) on 1 January, 1944
  • Werblan . Wladyslaw Gomulka 168 – 170 .
  • Polubiec , Zofia , ed. 1984 . Polska Portia Robotnicza: dokumenty programowe , 174 – 179 . Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza . No. 24, December 1943, Lodz-An Article Stating the Relations of the PPR to the German Population in Poland. On Our Relations with the Germans
  • Gomulka , Wladyslaw . 1963 . Artykuly i Przemowienia: Tom I: styczen 1943-grudzien 1945 , 67 – 68 . Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza . It is worth noting that in his report in January 1944 on the political situation in wartime Poland, Gomulka grouped the National Democrats among fascists and other reactionary organizations
  • 1944 . The Manifesto of the Polish Committee of National Liberation , 22 July
  • Bester , Liliana , ed. 1974 . Manifest PKWN , 13 – 25 . Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza .
  • Kolomejczyk , Norbert . 1966 . Ziemia Zackodnia w dzialalnosci PPR , 46 Poznan : Wydawnictwo Poznahskie . The manifesto was vague enough to avoid committing the P.K.W.N. (and more importantly, the Soviet Union) to claiming all of Lower Silesia or the entire Pomeranian coast, including the port of Szczecin, as Polish territorial objectives
  • Siebel-Achenbach . Lower Silesia 88 – 89 . Using the eastern or the western Neisse to delineate a Polish-German frontier determined whether Breslau (WrocBaw), over 24,793 square kilometers of German territory, and an additional two to three million Germans would fall under Polish rule, those Germans to be ultimately expelled
  • Kolomejczyk . Ziemia Zachodnia 48
  • Polonsky , Antony and Drukier , Boleslaw , eds. 1980 . The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland , 47 – 53 . 227 London : Routledge & Kegan Paul .
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiqzek Zachodni 65
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 76 The four-member organizational committee of the P.Z.Z. included two activists from the P.P.R. and one from the Polish Socialist Party (Polska Partiy Socjalistyczna, P.P.S.). The most important of these was P.P.R. member and P.Z.Z. Secretary General Jozef Dubiel, a member of the pre-war Communist League of Polish Youth and a wartime communist partisan commander who played an important role in the subsequent history of the P.Z.Z., and later as Vice Minister of the Ministry of Recovered Territories
  • Polonsky and Drukier . The Beginnings of Communist Rule 162
  • "A Memorial" . WAPP PZZ , 589 3
  • Polonsky , Antony and Drukier , Bo/esfaw , eds. 1980 . The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland , 162 438 London : Routledge & Kegan Paul . At the May 1945 Plenum there was a call for Dubiel to leave the P.Z.Z.. He was later caught up in the post-1948 P.P.R. witch hunt of national-deviationists. Accused of wartime cooperation with the Gestapo, he was arrested along with many others of Gomulka's political allies in 1949
  • Gomulka . Artykuly i przemowienia: Tom I 255
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodn i 76 – 79 .
  • 1982 . Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland: Volume II: 1795 to the Present , Volume II , 492 – 535 . New York : Columbia University Press . So called because of the Polish nationalist claim that all German territory east of the Oder and Neisse rivers was historically Polish land. Norman Davies points out the fictions inherent in arguing for any real continuity between early medieval Polish settlements in the Oder-Neisse region and Poland's right to territories that, in 1945, had for over 600 years been outside the orbit of any Polish state. Ultimately the Z.O. was, for Poland, booty of war
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 89
  • Dulczewski , Zygmunt and Kwilecki , Andzrej . 1962 . Spoleczenstwo Wielkopolskie w osadnictwie ZiemZachodnich , 45 Poznan : Wydawnictwo Poznahskie .
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiqzek Zachodni 192 195 – 197 .
  • Ibid., p. 214.
  • Musielak , Michaf . “ Ludnose niemiecka w Wielkpolsce po II wojnie swiatowej w ocenie Polskiego Zwiazku Zachodniego ” . In Polska-NiemcyMniejszosc Niemiecka w Wielkopolskce: Przeslosc i TerazniejszosE Edited by: Sakson , Andrzej . 133 – 35 .
  • Ujdak , Maigorzata . 1988 . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni Wobec Problemów Narodowosciowych w Latach 1944-1950 , 27 Katowice : Uniwersytet Slaski .
  • Musielak , Michai . 1986 . “ Polski Zwiazek Zachodni ” . In 40-Lecie Powrotu Ziem Zachodnich i Pólnocnych do Polski: Czesc II: Sekcja Polityczno-Socjologiczna: Materialy Ogolnoposlkiej Sesji Naukowej Odbytej w Dniach 25-26 Czerwca 1985 R. , Edited by: Wisniewska , Barbara and Dymek , Benon . 158 Warsaw : Drukarnia KC PZPR .
  • Szczególa . Przeobrazenia 50 – 52 .
  • Dulczewski and Kwilecki . Spoleczeunstwo Wielkopolskie 87 – 90 .
  • Engelgard , Jan . 1996 . Testament Dmowskiego Niemcy-Rosja-Polska , 25 Warsaw : Wydanwnictwo Polskie Sp. Z.o.o. .
  • Terej , Jerzy Janusz . 1971 . Rzeczywistosc i Polityka: Ze studiów nad dziejami najnowszymi Narodowej Demokracji , 12 Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza .
  • Kwilecki and Tomaszewski . Poznan Jako Osrodek Polskiej Mysli Zachodniej; and Serwanski, MysI Zachodnia, in Kwilecki, Polska Mysl Zachodnia 154 214
  • Choniawko , Andrzej . 1980 . Stosunki polityczne w Wielkopolsce, 1945-1950 , 49 – 50 . Poznan : Wydawnictwo Poznahskie . Choniawko maintains that the PPR enjoyed authority [in Wielkopolska] because of its role in settlement [in the Recovered Territories]; Szczególa also discuss the importance of the Poznan P.P.R. in sending operation groups to various towns in the Recovered Territories. He notes that the P.P.R. emphasized work in the Western Territories, yet it was the P.Z.Z. which was the main organizer of mass settlement in the Recovered Territories. Szczególa, Przeobrazenia, pp. 38-39
  • Szabek , Henryk . 1972 . Dzieje Polskiej Reformy Rolnej 1944-48 , 122 – 138 . Warsaw : Wiedza Powszechna . As early as May, party activists from Warsaw pointed to deep failures in land reform in Wielkoposlka. AAN KC PPR 295/IX-57, p. 9
  • Szczególa , Hieronim . 1971 . Przeobraæenia Ustrojowe-Spaleczne na Ziemi Lubuskiej w Latach 1945-1947 , 45 Poznan : Uniwersytet Adama Mickiewicza .
  • Gomulka . Artykuly i Przemówienia, Tom I 246
  • Ibid., pp. 211, 219.
  • Ibid., pp. 248-249.
  • Kenney , Padraic . 2000 . "Whose Nation, Whose State?" ” . In Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry: Volume XIII: Focusing on the Holocaust and its Aftermath , Edited by: Polonsky , Antony . Volume XIII , 224 – 235 . London : Littman Library of Jewish Civilization .
  • Kochahski , Aleksander . 1992 . Minutes of the Central Committee Conference, in Protokól Obrad KC PPR w Maju 1945 Roku , 42 Warsaw : Instytut Studiów Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk . Compare this with Roman Zambrowski's speech on the political promise for the P.P.R. of land reform and distribution in the Z.O.. Polonsky and Drukier, The Beginnings of Communist Rule, p. 417
  • 1945 . The Regional Inspector of the State Repatriation Agency in Ostrow County . Poznah Branch , 27 July WAPP Panstwowy Urzad Repatriacyjny (henceforth PUR), 872, p. 6. For a further discussion of the impact of regional identity on Polish settlers in the western territories
  • Kenney , Padraic . 1997 . Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Communists, 1945-1950 , 156 – 163 . Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press .
  • "Report from the Town Government of Gorzów for August 1945" . WAPP UWP , 78 65 – 67 .
  • "September 1945 Report of the Provincial Office of the Ministry of Information and Propaganda" . WAPP WUIiP , 33 155 164
  • "Meeting of Party Activists on 7 August 1945" . WAPP KW PPR , 50 27
  • "Meeting of Party Activists on 7 August and 6 September 1945" . WAPP KW PPR , 50 27 – 28 . 46
  • "Minutes of the Meeting of the Provincial Executive Committee of the PPR on 5 August 1945" . WAPP KW PPR , 6 78
  • "Minutes of the meeting of the Provincial Executive Committee of the PPR on 5 August 1945" . WAPP KW PPR , 6 76
  • Davies . God's Playground Volume II , 136 The above title is the refrain from "Rota", an anti-German patriotic song composed in 1919 to honor the unveiling of a monument on the 500th anniversary of the defeat of the Teutonic Knights and which was sung at almost all postwar public meetings in Wielkopolska. For the full text
  • Gtertych . Pól Wieku Polskiej Polityki 187
  • Siebel-Achenbach . Lower Silesia 239 – 253 .
  • Musielak notes that the cause of the failure of the P.Z.Z. to maintain its traditional apolitical line was that its supporters tried-and failed-to develop the Union's ideas and programs "in isolation from the then current political reality," and that from its beginning the P.Z.Z.'s apolitical aspirations were only "theoretical postulates." Musielak, Polski Zwiazek Zackodni, p. 96.
  • Chuminski , Jedrzej . 1999 . Ruch Zawodowy w Polsce w Warunkach Kstaltujacego Sie Systemu Totalitamego 1944-1956 , 181 – 186 . Wroclaw : Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej im. Oskara Langego we Wroclawiu . A similar process was already underway among professional movements in Poland at this time
  • Werblan . Wladyslaw Gomulka 300 – 301 . 318 – 319 . Of 1,087 total delegates, over two-thirds (659) had belonged to the K.P.P. and over 400 of these had spent the war outside of Poland
  • Coutouvidis and Reynolds . Poland 222
  • Gomulka . Artykuly i Przemówienia Vol. I , 525
  • Werblan . Wladyslaw Gomulka 306 – 307 .
  • Gomulka . Artykuly i Przemówienia Vol. 1 , 440 – 441 .
  • Ibid., pp. 429-430.
  • Kawalec , Krzystof . 1996 . Roman Dmowski , 126 – 127 . 320 – 322 . Warsaw : Editions Spotkanie System .
  • Gomulka . Artykuly i Przemówienia Vol. 1 , 480 – 484 . 510
  • Ibid., pp. 488-492, 502-504.
  • Ibid., pp. 510-515.
  • Kolomejczyk , Norbert and Malinowski , Marian . 1986 . Polska Partia Robotnicza, 1942-1948 , 288 – 289 . Warsaw : Ksiazka i Wiedza .
  • Polubiec . Polska Partia Robotnicza: dokumenty programowe 320 – 322 .
  • Werblan . Wladyslaw Gomulka 309 – 311 .
  • Marczak . Propaganda Polityczna 45 – 71 . For an in-depth discussion of negotiations surrounding the referendum
  • Lach , Stanislaw . 1995 . Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe w latach 1945-1947 , 157 – 159 . Gdansk : Marpress .
  • Gomulka , Wladysiaw . 1947 . W walce o demokracje ludów , 15 Warsaw : Ksiazka .
  • Lcach . Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe 271 – 272 .
  • Gomulka . Artykuly i Przemówienia Vol. 2 , 155 – 156 .
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 140 – 141 .
  • Ibid., pp. 91-92.
  • Protocol Number 1: From a Meeting of the Presidium of the Governing Board of the PZZ on 15 June, 1946," WAPP PZZ 596, pp. 2-4.
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 97 – 108 . The Poznan Circle 1945 and The Report on the Activities of the Administrative Circle of the PZZ in Poznan in 1946, WAPP PZZ 586, pp. 130, 291. This was part of a larger, nationwide drop in P.Z.Z. membership in 1946. Though the Union eventually recovered (and even expanded) from these losses, the new members were often registered en masse and evinced little interest in the activities or ideas of the Union
  • Ibid., p. 300.
  • Coutouvidis and Reynolds . Poland 253 – 254 .
  • Paczkowski . Referendum 11 – 12 . 97 An Evaluation of the People's Vote in the Province of Poznan, WAPP WUIiP 26 Secret Correspondence, p. 39. The significant margins of error in the Ministry of Information and Propaganda's tally may be attributed to local information on the extent of administrative fraud. Actual results were even lower than the above: according to Paczkowski in Wielkopolska the no vote on the first and second questions was 83.1 and 58, respectively, whereas the third question received a yes vote of 81 (from a total of 521,668 valid votes cast). Some (but not all, given the heavily falsified pro-regime results of the voting in Ziemia Lubuska) of the discrepancy can be accounted for by the use in the Poznan Ministry of Information's report of results from Ziemia Lubuska. Even these assessments cannot be regarded as completely accurate, given the prevalence of fraud at the site of the voting prior to any count
  • W/adyslaw Raczkiewicz and General Wladyslaw Anders were leaders of the Polish government-in-exile in London who did not return to Poland after the war; Churchill gained the ire of many Poles for his increasingly critical stance towards Poland's postwar territorial gains. The NSZ (Narodowe Sily Zbrojne, National Armed Forces) and WiN (Wolnosc i Niepodleglosc, Freedom and Independence) were anti-regime insurgencies that had all but been destroyed by the spring of 1946. Kersten, The Establishment of Communist Rule, pp. 229, 325.
  • Czarnecka , Ewa and Fiut , Alexsander . 1981 . Conversations with Czeslaw Milosz , 53 New York : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich .
  • Musielak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 164 – 167 . 252 – 255 .
  • Osekowski . Spoleczenstwo Polski 173 – 174 . 189 – 193 .
  • Museilak . Polski Zwiazek Zachodni 109 – 110 .
  • Jankowiak , Stanislaw . 1996 . Wielkopolska w Okresie Stalinizmu 1948-1956 , 155 – 156 . Poznan : Wydawnictwo Poznanskie .
  • Wiceniewska and Dymek . 40-Lecie Powrotu Ziem Zachodnich 161 Musielak, Polski Zwiazek Zachodni, in
  • Kubik , Jan . 1994 . The Power of Symbols against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland , 75 – 102 . University Park : Pennsylvania State University Press . The ongoing importance of anti-German imagery in officially sanctioned art as late as the 1970s can be seen in Kubik's analysis of the play The Song of Wavel

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