Can scientists communicate interpersonal warmth? Testing warmth messages in the context of science communication

References

• Aaker, D. A., Stayman, D. M., & Hagerty, M. R. (1986). Warmth in advertising: Measurement, impact, and sequence effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(4), 365–381. https://doi.org/10.1086/208524
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abele, A. E., & Wojciszke, B. (2014). Communal and agentic content in social cognition: A dual perspective model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 195–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00004-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allgaier, J. (2019). Cool geeks, dangerous nerds, entrepreneurial scientists and idealistic physicians? Exploring science and medicine in popular culture. In A. Görgen, N. G. Alfonso, & H. Fangerau (Eds.), Handbook of popular culture and biomedicine (pp. 25–39). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Bauer, M. W., & Jensen, P. (2011). The mobilization of scientists for public engagement. Public Understanding of Science, 20(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662510394457
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Besley, J. C. (2015). Predictors of perceptions of scientists: Comparing 2001 and 2012. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 35(1-2), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467615604267
   Google Scholar
• Besley, J. C., Dudo, A., & Yuan, S. (2018). Scientists’ views about communication objectives. Public Understanding of Science, 27(6), 708–730. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662517728478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Besley, J. C., O’Hara, K., & Dudo, A. (2019). Strategic science communication as planned behavior: Understanding scientists’ willingness to choose specific tactics. PloS One, 14(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brambilla, M., Rusconi, P., Sacchi, S., & Cherubini, P. (2011). Looking for honesty: The primary role of morality (vs. Sociability and competence) in information gathering. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(2), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.744
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brañas-Garza, P., Capraro, V., & Rascon, E. (2016). Gender differences in altruism: Expectations, actual behaviour and accuracy of beliefs. ID 2796221, SSRN Scholarly Paper, Social Science Research Network.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, E. R., Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Diekman, A. B. (2015). Closing the communal gap: The importance of communal affordances in science career motivation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 45(12), 662–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, M. C., & Edell, J. A. (1989). The impact of feelings on ad-based affect and cognition. Journal of Marketing Research, 26(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378902600106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carli, L. L., Alawa, L., Lee, Y., Zhao, B., & Kim, E. (2016). Stereotypes about gender and science: Women≠ scientists. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 244–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315622645
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuddy, A. J., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2008). Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 61–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(07)00002-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diekman, A. B., Clark, E. K., Johnston, A. M., Brown, E. R., & Steinberg, M. (2011). Malleability in communal goals and beliefs influences attraction to STEM careers: Evidence for a goal congruity perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 902–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, E., Atsma, F., De Kort, W., & Veldhuizen, I. (2012). Exploring the pattern of blood donor beliefs in first-time, novice, and experienced donors: Differentiating reluctant altruism, pure altruism, impure altruism, and warm glow. Transfusion, 52(2), 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1537-2995.2011.03279.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T. (2018). Stereotype content: Warmth and competence endure. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417738825
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of stereotype content as often mixed: Separate dimensions of competence and warmth respectively follow from status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2018). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition (2002). In Social cognition: Selected works of Susan T. Fiske (pp. 171–222). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
   Google Scholar
• Fiske, S. T., & Dupree, C. (2014). Gaining trust as well as respect in communicating to motivated audiences about science topics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(Suppl. 4), 13593–13597. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317505111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flemming, D., Cress, U., Kimmig, S., Brandt, M., & Kimmerle, J. (2018). Emotionalization in science communication: The impact of narratives and Visual representations on knowledge gain and risk perception. Frontiers in Communication, 3, 3–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2018.00003
   Google Scholar
• Funk, C., & Kennedy, B. (2019). Public confidence in scientists has remained stable for decades. Pew Research Center. FactTank. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/03/22/public-confidence-in-scientists-has-remained-stable-for-decades/
   Google Scholar
• Garza, C., Stover, P. J., Ohlhorst, S. D., Field, M. S., Steinbrook, R., Rowe, S., Woteki, C., & Campbell, E. (2019). Best practices in nutrition science to earn and keep the public’s trust. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 109(1), 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauchat, G. (2015). The political context of science in the United States: Public acceptance of evidence-based policy and science funding. Social Forces, 94(2), 723–746. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sov040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guenther, L., & Weingart, P. (2018). Promises and reservations towards science and technology among South African publics: A culture-sensitive approach. Public Understanding of Science, 27(1), 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662517693453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hmielowski, J. D., Feldman, L., Myers, T. A., Leiserowitz, A., & Maibach, E. (2014). An attack on science? Media use, trust in scientists, and perceptions of global warming. Public Understanding of Science, 23(7), 866–883. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662513480091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holoien, D. S., & Fiske, S. T. (2013). Downplaying positive impressions: Compensation between warmth and competence in impression management. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huber, B., Wetzstein, I., & Aichberger, I. (2019). Societal problem solver or deficient discipline? The debate about social science in the online public sphere. Journal of Science Communication, 18(2), A04. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.18020204
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imhoff, R., Woelki, J., Hanke, S., & Dotsch, R. (2013). Warmth and competence in your face! Visual encoding of stereotype content. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 386–394. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iordan, A. D., Dolcos, S., Denkova, E., & Dolcos, F. (2013). Sex differences in the response to emotional distraction: An event-related fMRI investigation. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 13(1), 116–134. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-012-0134-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawamoto, S., Nakayama, M., & Saijo, M. (2013). A survey of scientific literacy to provide a foundation for designing science communication in Japan. Public Understanding of Science, 22(6), 674–690. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662511418893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall-Taylor, N., Erard, M., & Haydon, A. (2013). The use of metaphor as a science communication tool: Air traffic control for your brain. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 41(4), 412–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2013.836678
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keshari, P., & Jain, S. (2016). Effect of age and gender on consumer response to advertising appeals. Paradigm, 20(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971890716637702
   Google Scholar
• Landers, R. N., & Behrend, T. S. (2015). An inconvenient truth: Arbitrary distinctions between organizational, Mechanical Turk, and other convenience samples. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 142–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.13
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastro, D., Behm-Morawitz, E., & Ortiz, M. (2007). The cultivation of social perceptions of Latinos: A mental models approach. Media Psychology, 9(2), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260701286106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPherson, E., Park, B., & Ito, T. A. (2018). The role of prototype matching in science pursuits: Perceptions of scientists that are inaccurate and diverge from self-perceptions predict reduced interest in a science career. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(6), 881–898. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217754069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metz, A. J., Fouad, N., & Ihle-Helledy, K. (2009). Career aspirations and expectations of college students: Demographic and labor market comparisons. Journal of Career Assessment, 17(2), 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072708328862
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers, T. A., Nisbet, M. C., Maibach, E. W., & Leiserowitz, A. A. (2012). A public health frame arouses hopeful emotions about climate change. Climatic Change, 113(3-4), 1105–1112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0513-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L. (2003). Exploring the framing effects of emotion: Do discrete emotions differentially influence information accessibility, information seeking, and policy preference? Communication Research, 30(2), 224–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650202250881
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble, G., Pomering, A., & Johnson, L. W. (2014). Gender and message appeal: Their influence in a pro-environmental social advertising context. Journal of Social Marketing, 4(1), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSOCM-12-2012-0049
   Google Scholar
• Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Foss, M. A. (1987). The referential structure of the affective lexicon. Cognitive Science, 11(3), 341–364. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1103_4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pansegrau, P. (2008). Stereotypes and images of scientists in fiction films. In B. Huppauff & P. Weingart (Eds.), Science images and popular images of the sciences (pp. 8–257). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2015). Emotion and persuasion: Cognitive and meta-cognitive processes impact attitudes. Cognition and Emotion, 29(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.967183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Retzbach, A., & Maier, M. (2015). Communicating scientific uncertainty: Media effects on public engagement with science. Communication Research, 42(3), 429–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650214534967
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutjens, B. T., & Heine, S. J. (2016). The immoral landscape? Scientists are associated with violations of morality. PloS One, 11(4), e0152798. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152798
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutjens, B. T., Heine, S. J., Sutton, R. M., & van Harreveld, F. (2018). Attitudes towards science. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 57, 125–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2017.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schäfer, M. S., Füchslin, T., Metag, J., Kristiansen, S., & Rauchfleisch, A. (2018). The different audiences of science communication: A segmentation analysis of the Swiss population’s perceptions of science and their information and media use patterns. Public Understanding of Science, 27(7), 836–856. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662517752886
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sink, A., & Mastro, D. (2017). Depictions of gender on primetime television: A quantitative content analysis. Mass Communication and Society, 20(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1212243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sink, A., Mastro, D., & Dragojevic, M. (2018). Competent or warm? A stereotype contents model approach to understanding perceptions of masculine and effeminate gay television characters. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(3), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699017706483
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinke, J. (2017). Adolescent girls’ STEM identity formation and media images of STEM professionals: Considering the influence of contextual cues. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teichert, T., Hardeck, D., Liu, Y., & Trivedi, R. (2018). How to implement informational and emotional appeals in print advertisements: A framework for choosing ad appeals based on advertisers’ objectives and targeted demographics. Journal of Advertising Research, 58(3), 363–379. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2017-054
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weingart, P., & Guenther, L. (2016). Science communication and the issue of trust. Journal of Science Communication, 15(5), C01. https://doi.org/10.22323/2.15050301
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojciszke, B., & Abele, A. E. (2008). The primacy of communion over agency and its reversals in evaluations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(7), 1139–1147. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.549
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao, S. X., Hashi, E. C., Korous, K. M., & Eisenberg, N. (2019). Gender differences across multiple types of prosocial behavior in adolescence: A meta-analysis of the prosocial tendency measure-revised (PTM-R). Journal of Adolescence, 77, 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.09.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ybarra, O., Chan, E., & Park, D. (2001). Young and old adults’ concerns about morality and competence. Motivation and Emotion, 25(2), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010633908298
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahry, N. R., & Besley, J. C. (2017). Students’ perceptions of agriculture and natural resources majors: Understanding STEM choice. Natural Sciences Education, 46(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.4195/nse2016.07.0019
   Google Scholar
• Zahry, N. R., & Besley, J. C. (2019). Warmth portrayals to recruit students into science majors. Visual Communication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470357219871696
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar