References
- ACLU. (2020). The other epidemic: Fatal police shootings in the time of COVID-19. https://www.aclu.org/report/other-epidemic-fatal-police-shootings-time-covid-19?redirect=policeshootingreport
- Alexander, M. (2012). The new Jim crow. The New Press.
- Banks, C. (2018). Disciplining black activism: Post-racial rhetoric, public memory and decorum in news media framing of the Black lives matter movement. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 32(6), 709–720. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2018.1525920
- Barker, V., Giles, H., Hajek, C., Ota, H., Noels, K., Lim, T.-S., & Somera, L. (2008). Police-civilian interaction, compliance, accommodation, and trust in an intergroup context. Journal of International & Intercultural Communication, 1(2), 93–112. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/17513050801891986
- Bonilla-Silva, E. (2014). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America (4th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
- Burgason, K. A. (2017). Trust is hard to come by: Disentangling the influence of structural characteristics and race on perceptions of trust in the police in a major southern county. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 15(4), 349–371. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2017.1385558
- Bustamante, S. (2017). The birth of listening cafes. http://www.thecircleway.net/articles/2017/4/19/birth-of-listening-cafes
- Chama, B. (2019). The Black lives matter movement, crime and police brutality: Comparative study of New York Post and New York Daily News. European Journal of American Culture, 38(3), 201–216. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1386/ejac_00002_1
- Cheurprakobkit, S., & Bartsch, R. (2001). Police performance: A model for assessing citizen's satisfaction and the importance of police attributes. Police Quarterly, 4(4), 449–468. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/109861101129197941
- The Circle Way. (2017). Taking circle conversations into public spaces. http://www.thecircleway.net/articles/2017/4/19/circle-conversations-public-spaces
- Cole, G. (2020). Types of white identification and attitudes about Black lives matter. Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell), 101(4), 1627–1633. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12837
- Dai, M., Hu, X., & Time, V. (2019). Understanding public satisfaction with the police: Military background and interactions between higher education and prior contact with the police. Policing: An International Journal, 42(4), 571–584. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2018-0110
- Dainton, M., & Zelley, E. (2019). Applying communication theory for professional life. Sage.
- Desmond, M., Papachristos, A. V., & Kirk, D. S. (2016). Police violence and citizen crime reporting in the black community. American Sociological Review, 81(5), 857–876. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416663494
- Dixon, T. L., Schell, T. L., Giles, H., & Drogos, K. L. (2008). The influence of race in police-civilian interactions: A content analysis of videotaped interactions taken during Cincinnati police traffic stops. Journal of Communication, 58(3), 530–549. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.00398.x
- Edwards, F., Esposito, M. H., & Lee, H. (2018). Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012–2018. American Journal of Public Health, 108(9), 1241–1248. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304559
- Emerson, R., Fretz, R., & Shaw, L. (2011). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
- Eschholz, S., Blackwell, B. S., Gertz, M., & Chiricos, T. (2002). Race and attitudes toward the police. Assessing the effects of watching ‘reality’ police programs. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(4), 327–341. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00133-2
- Giles, H., Fortman, J., Dailey, R., Barker, V., Hajek, C., Chernikoff Anderson, M., & Rule, N. (2006). Communication accommodation: Law enforcement and the public. In R. M. Dailey & B. A. L. Poire (Eds.), Interpersonal communication matters: Family, health, and community relations (pp. 241–269). Peter Lang.
- Giles, H., Hajek, C., Barker, V., Chen, M.-L., Zhang, B. Y., Hummert, M. L., & Anderson, M. (2007). Accommodation and institutional talk: Communicative dimensions of police-civilian interactions. In A. Weatherall, B. Watson, & C. Gallois (Eds.), The social psychologyof language and discourse (pp. 131–159). Palgrave Macmillan.
- Giles, H., Linz, D., Bonilla, D., & Gomez, M. (2012). Police stops of and interactions with Latino and White (non-Latino) drivers: Extensive policing and communication accommodation. Communication Monographs, 79(4), 407–427. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2012.723815
- Giles, H., Mulac, A., Bradac, J., & Johnson, P. (1987). Ethnolinguistic identity theory: A social psychological approach to language maintenance. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 68, 66–99. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.1987.68.69
- Goldberg, D. T. (2002). The racial state. Blackwell Publishers.
- Graham, A., Haner, M., Sloan, M. M., Cullen, F. T., Kulig, T. C., & Jonson, C. L. (2020). Race and worrying about police brutality: The hidden injuries of minority status in America. Victims & Offenders, 15(5), 549–573. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2020.1767252
- Hadden, S. E. (2001). Slave patrols: Law and violence in Virginia and the Carolinas. Harvard University Press.
- Hernández, J., & Mueller, B. (2020). ‘We Are All George Floyd’: Global anger grows over a death in Minneapolis. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/01/world/asia/george-floyd-protest-global.html
- Jackson, S. J., & Foucault Welles, B. (2016). #Ferguson is everywhere: Initiators in emerging counterpublic networks. Information, Communication & Society, 19(3), 397–418. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1106571
- Jensen, S. (2014). Conflicting logics of exceptionality: New beginnings and the problem of police violence in post-Apartheid South Africa. Development & Change, 45(3), 458–478. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12088
- Jordan, K. L., & Freiburger, T. L. (2015). The effect of race/ethnicity on sentencing: Examining sentence type, jail length, and prison length. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 13(3), 179–196. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2014.984045
- Kramer, R., & Remster, B. (2018). Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law & Society Review, 52(4), 960–993. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12366
- Kynoch, G. (2016). Apartheid’s afterlives: Violence, policing and the South African state. Journal of Southern African Studies, 42(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2016.1087167
- Lawson, E. (2019). Police militarization and the use of lethal force. Political Research Quarterly, 72(1), 177–189. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918784209
- Marshall, P. (1974). Policing: The community relations aspect. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 3(3), 193–198. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.1974.9975283
- McCarthy, J. (2016). Americans divided on priorities for criminal justice system. https://news.gallup.com/poll/196394/americans-divided-priorities-criminal-justice-system.aspx
- McMichael, C. (2016). Police wars and state repression in South Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 51(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909614541086
- Miller, M. (1999). Beyond ethics: The case for compassionate policing. The Police Chiefs, 66(10), 32. ISSN: 0032-2571; Accession Number: 2465251.
- Myers, P., Giles, H., Reid, S., & Nabi, R. (2008). Law enforcement encounters: The effects of officer accommodativeness and crime severity on interpersonal attributions are mediated by intergroup sensitivity. Communication Studies, 59(4), 291–305. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970802467361
- Nix, J., Campbell, B. A., Byers, E. H., & Alpert, G. P. (2017). A bird’s eye view of civilians killed by police in 2015. Criminology and Public Policy, 16(1), 309–340. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12269
- Norman, J. (2017). Confidence in police back at historical average. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/213869/confidence-police-back-historical-average.aspx
- Pager, D. (2007). Marked: Race, crime, and finding work in an era of mass incarceration. University of Chicago Press.
- Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS (6th ed.). Open University Press/McGraw-Hill.
- Peeples, L. (2019). What the data say about police shootings. Nature, 573(7772), 24–26. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-the-data-say-about-police-shootings/ https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-02601-9
- Pew Research Center. (2016). On views of race and inequality, blacks and whites are worlds apart. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/06/27/on-views-of-race-and-inequality-blacks-and-whites-are-worlds-apart/
- Price, J., & Payton, E. (2017). Implicit racial bias and police use of lethal force: Justifiable homicide or potential discrimination? Journal of African American Studies, 21(4), 674–683. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-017-9383-3
- Ramasubramanian, S., Sousa, A. N., & Gonlin, V. (2017). Facilitated difficult dialogues on racism: A goal-based approach. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 45(5), 537–556. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2017.1382706
- Ramirez, F. A. (2018). Social media affordances in the context of police transparency: An analysis of the first public archive of police body camera videos. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 46(5), 621–640. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2018.1528622
- Rios, V. (2011). Punished: Policing the lives of Black and Latino boys. New York University Press.
- Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (2001). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression (1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Slocum, L. A. (2018). The effect of prior police contact on victimization reporting: Results from the police-public contact and national crime victimization surveys. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34(2), 535–589. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-017-9345-x
- Smith, J. P., & Merolla, D. M. (2019). Black, blue, and blow: The effect of race and criminal history on perceptions of police violence. Sociological Inquiry, 89(4), 1–21. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12275
- Smith Lee, J. R., & Robinson, M. A. (2019). ‘That’s my number one fear in life It’s the police': Examining young Black men’s exposures to trauma and loss resulting from police violence and police killings. Journal of Black Psychology, 45(3), 143–184. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798419865152
- Solomon, J., & Martin, A. (2019). Competitive victimhood as a lens to reconciliation: An analysis of the black lives matter and blue lives matter movements. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 37(1), 7–31. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/crq.21262
- Sprott, J. B., & Doob, A. N. (1997). Fear, victimization, and attitudes to sentencing, the courts, and the police. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 39(3), 275–292. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3138/cjcrim.39.3.275
- Stamps, D., & Mastro, D. (2020). The problem with protests: Emotional effects of race-related news media. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 97(3), 617–643. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699019891433
- Stein, K. (2001). Public perception of crime and justice in Canada: A review of opinion polls. http://www.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/rs/rep/2001/rr01-1a.pdf
- Stevenson, B. (2014). Just mercy: A story of justice and redemption. Spiegel & Grau.
- Stockman, F., & Eligon, J. (2020). Cities ask if it’s time to defund police and ‘reimagine’ public safety. The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/05/us/defund-police-floyd-protests.html
- Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law & Society Review, 37(3), 513–548. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5893.3703002
- Thompson, B. L., & Lee, J. D. (2004). Who cares if police become violent? Explaining approval of police use of force using a national sample. Sociological Inquiry, 74(3), 381–410. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2004.00097.x
- Tracy, S. (2013). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact. Wiley-Blackwell.
- Updegrove, A. H., Cooper, M. N., Orrick, E. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2020). Red states and Black lives: Applying the racial threat hypothesis to the Black Lives Matter movement. Justice Quarterly, 37(1), 85–108. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1516797
- Wertz, J., Azrael, D., Berrigan, J., Barber, C., Nelson, E., Hemenway, D., Salhi, C., & Miller, M. (2020). A typology of civilians shot and killed by U.S. police: A latent class analysis of firearm legal intervention homicide in the 2014-2015 national violent death reporting system. Journal of Urban Health, 97(3), 317–328. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00430-0
- Wu, Y., Sun, I. Y., & Triplett, R. A. (2009). Race, class or neighborhood context: Which matters more in measuring satisfaction with police? Justice Quarterly, 26(1), 125–156. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820802119950
- Yates, D. L., & Pillai, V. K. (1996). Attitudes toward community policing: A causal analysis. Social Science Journal, 33(2), 193–209. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0362-3319(96)90036-1