There are Threats and (Maybe) Fear-Caused Arousal: Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself

References

• Batra , Rajeev and Ray , Michael L. 1986 . “Affective Responses Mediating Acceptance of Advertising,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 13 ( September ) : 234 – 249 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck , Kenneth H. and Davis , Clive M. 1978 . “Effects of Fear-Arousing Communications and Topic Importance on Attitude Change,” . Journal of Social Psychology , 104 ( February ) : 81 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck , Kenneth H. and Frankel , Arthur . 1981 . “A Conceptualization of Threat Communications and Protective Health Behavior,” . Social Psychology Quarterly , 44 ( September ) : 204 – 217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belch , George E. and Belch , Michael A. 1995 . Introduction to Advertising and Promotion an Integrated Communications Perspective, , 3rd ed. , Chicago : Richard D. Irwin .
   Google Scholar
• Bentler , Peter M. 1992 . EQS Structural Equations Program Manual , Los Angeles : BMDP Statistical Software Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Boster , Franklin J. and Mongeau , Paul . 1984 . “Fear-Arousing Persuasive Messages,” . In Communications Yearbook 8 , Edited by: Bostrom , Robert N. 330 – 375 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Burke , Marian Chapman and Edell , Julie A. 1989 . “The Impact of Feelings on Ad-Based Affect and Cognition,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 26 ( February ) : 69 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , John J. and Oliver , Richard L. 1979 . “Fear Appeal Effects in the Field: A Segmentation Approach,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 16 ( May ) : 181 – 190 .
   Google Scholar
• Burnett , John J. and Wilkes , Robert E. 1980 . “Fear Appeals to Segments Only,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 20 ( October ) : 21 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Bush , Alan J. and Hair , Joseph F. Jr. 1985 . “An Assessment of the Mall Intercept as a Data Collection Method,” . Journal of Marketing Research , 22 ( May ) : 158 – 167 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duke , J. D. 1967 . “Critique of the Janis and Feshbach Study,” . Journal of Social Psychology , 72 ( July ) : 71 – 80 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edell , Julie A. and Burke , Marian Chapman . 1987 . “The Power of Feelings in Understanding Advertising Effects,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 14 ( December ) : 421 – 433 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , Richard I. , Rozelle , Richard M. , Lasater , Thomas M. , Dembroski , Theodore M. and Allen , Bem P. 1970 . “Fear Arousal, Persuasion and Actual Versus Implied Behavior Change; New Perspective Utilizing a Real-Life Dental Hygiene Program,” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 16 ( 2 ) : 220 – 227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould , Stephen Jay . 1985 . The Flamingo's Smile: Reflections in Natural History , New York : W.W. Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Hair , Joseph F. Jr. , Anderson , Rolph E. , Tatham , Ronald L. and Black , William C. 1992 . Multivariate Data Analysis With Readings, , 3rd ed. , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Henthorne , Tony L. and LaTour , Michael S. 1995 . “A Model to Explore the Ethics of Erotic Stimuli in Print Advertising,” . Journal of Business Ethics , 14 ( July ) : 561 – 569 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henthorne , Tony L. and Nataraajan , Rajan . 1993 . “Fear Appeals in Print Advertising: An Analysis of Arousal and Ad Response,” . Journal of Advertising , 22 ( 2 ) : 56 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higbee , K. L. 1969 . “Fifteen Years of Fear Arousal: Research on Threat Appeals: 1953–1968,” . Psychological Bulletin , 72 ( 6 ) : 426 – 444 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , Ronald Paul . 1988 . “An Exploration of the Relationship Between AIDS-Related Anxiety and Evaluation of Condom Advertisements,” . Journal of Advertising , 17 ( 4 ) : 35 – 42 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janis , Irving L. 1968 . “When Fear Is Healthy,” . Psychology Today , 1 ( April ) : 46 – 48 . 60 61
   Google Scholar
• Janis , Irving L. and Feshbach , S. 1953 . “Effects of Fear-Arousing Communications,” . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 48 ( January ) : 78 – 92 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janis , Irving L. and Feshbach , S. 1954 . “Personality Differences Associated with Responsiveness to Fear-Arousing Communications,” . Journal of Personality , 23 ( December ) : 154 – 166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller , Punam Anand and Block , Lauren Goldberg . 1996 . “Increasing the Persuasiveness of Fear Appeals: The Effect of Arousal and Elaboration,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 22 ( March ) : 448 – 459 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly , Kathleen and Edwards , Ruth . 1992 . “Observations: Does Discussion of Advertising Transaction Its Effects? Yes, Sometimes,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 32 ( July/August ) : 79 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• King , Karen Whitehill and Reid , Leonard N. 1990 . “Fear Arousing Anti-Drinking PSA's: Do Physical Injury Threats Influence Young Adults?” . Current Issues & Research in Advertising , 12 ( 1 ) : 155 – 175 .
   Google Scholar
• LaTour , Michael S. and Henthorne , Tony L. 1994a . “Ethical Judgements of Sexual Appeals in Print Advertising,” . Journal of Advertising , 23 ( 3 ) : 81 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaTour , Michael S. and Henthorne , Tony L. 1994b . “Female Nudity, Arousal and Ad Response: A Parsimonious Extension,” . Psychological Reports , 75 ( December ) : 1683 – 1690 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaTour , Michael S. and Pitts , Robert E. 1989 . “Using Fear Appeals in Advertising for AIDS Prevention in the College-Age Population,” . Journal of Health Care Marketing , 9 ( September ) : 5 – 14 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LaTour , Michael S. and Snook-Luther , C. David . 1990 . “Female Nudity, Arousal, and Ad Response: An Experimental Investigation,” . Journal of Advertising , 19 ( 4 ) : 51 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaTour , Michael S. , Snipes , Robin L. and Bliss , Sara J. 1996 . “Don't Be Afraid to Use Fear Appeals: An Experimental Study,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 36 ( March/April ) : 59 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• LaTour , Michael S. and Zahra , Shaker A. 1989 . “Fear Appeals as Advertising Strategy: Should They Be Used?” . Journal of Consumer Marketing , 6 ( Spring ) : 61 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Leventhal , Howard . 1967 . “Fear—For Your Health,” . Psychology Today , 1 ( September ) : 54 – 58 .
   Google Scholar
• Leventhal , Howard . 1970 . “Findings and Theory in the Study of Fear Communications,” . In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , Edited by: Berkowitz , L. vol. 5 , 119 – 186 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Madden , Thomas J. , Ellen , Pamela Scholder and Ajzen , Icck . 1992 . “A Comparison of the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Theory of Reasoned Action,” . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 18 ( February ) : 3 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mano , Haim and Oliver , Richard L. 1993 . “Assessing the Dimensionality and Structure of the Consumption Experience: Evaluation, Feeling and Satisfaction,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 20 ( December ) : 451 – 466 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire , W. F. 1977 . “Attitudes and Opinions,” . Annual Review of Psychology , 17 : 475 – 514 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire , William J. 1966 . “Personality and Susceptability to Social Influence,” . In Handbook of Personality and Research , Edited by: Borgattan , E. and Lambert , W. Chicago : Rand McNally .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , Gerald R. 1963 . “Studies on the Use of Fear Appeals: A Summary and Analysis,” . Central States Speech Journal , 14 ( May ) : 117 – 125 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , Gerald R. and Hewgill , Murray A. 1966 . “Some Recent Research on Fear-Arousing Message Appeals,” . Speech Monographs , 33 ( November ) : 377 – 391 .
   Google Scholar
• Muehling , Darrel D. , Laczniak , Russell N. and Stoltman , Jeffrey J. 1991 . “The Moderating Effects of Ad Message Involvement: A Reassessment,” . Journal of Advertising , 20 ( June ) : 29 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn , Valerie , Meenaghan , Tony and Brannick , Teresa . 1992 . “Fear Appeals: Segmentation Is the Way to Go,” . International Journal of Advertising , 11 ( 4 ) : 355 – 366 .
   Google Scholar
• Ramirez , Albert and Lasater , Thomas M. 1977 . “Ethnicity of Communicator, Self-Esteem and Reactions to Fear-Arousing Communications,” . Journal of Social Psychology , 102 ( June ) : 79 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rippetoe , Patricia A. and Rogers , Ronald W. 1987 . “Effects of Components of Protection-Motivation Theory on Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping With a Health Threat,” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 ( 3 ) : 596 – 604 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roser , Connie and Thompson , Margaret . 1995 . “Fear Appeals and the Formation of Active Publics,” . Journal of Communication , 45 ( Winter ) : 103 – 121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotfeld , Herbert J. 1988 . “Fear Appeals and Persuasion: Assumptions and Errors in Advertising Research,” . Current Issues and Research in Advertising , 11 ( 1 ) : 21 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Severson , Herbert H. , Slovic , Paul and Hampson , Sarah . 1993 . “Adolescent Perception of Risk: Understanding and Preventing High Risk Behavior,” . In Advances in Consumer Research , Edited by: McAlister , Leigh and Rothschild , Michael L. vol. 20 , 177 – 182 . Provo , UT : Association for Consumer Research .
   Google Scholar
• Solomon , Michael . 1996 . Consumer Behavior, , 3rd ed. , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Spence , H. and Moinpour , R. 1972 . “Fear Appeals in Marketing: A Social Perspective,” . Journal of Marketing , 36 ( July ) : 39 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Sternthal , Brian and Craig , C. Samuel . 1974 . “Fear Appeals Revisited and Revised,” . Journal of Consumer Research , 1 ( November ) : 22 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stout , Patricia A. and Sego , Trina . “Response to Threat Appeals in Public Service Announcements,” . Proceedings of the 1995 Conference of the American Academy of Advertising . Edited by: Madden , Charles S. pp. 78 – 86 . Waco , TX : American Academy of Advertising .
   Google Scholar
• Strong , James T. and Dubas , Khalid M. 1993 . “The Optimal Level of Fear Arousal in Advertising: An Empirical Study,” . Journal of Current Issues of Research in Advertising , 15 ( Fall ) : 93 – 99 .
   Google Scholar
• Sutton , Stephen R. 1982 . “Fear-Arousing Communications: A Critical Examination of Theory and Research,” . In Social Psychology and Behavioral Medicine , Edited by: Eiser , J. Richard . 303 – 337 . New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Sutton , Stephen R. 1992 . “Shock Tactics and the Myth of the Inverted U,” . British Journal of Addiction , 87 ( April ) : 517 – 519 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tanner , John F. , Hunt , James B. and Eppright , David R. 1991 . “The Protection Motivation Model: A Normative Model of Fear Appeals,” . Journal of Marketing , 55 ( July ) : 36 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Thayer , Robert E. 1967 . “Measures of Activation Through Self-Report,” . Psychological Reports , 20 ( 2 ) : 663 – 678 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thayer , Robert E. 1978 . “Toward a Psychological Theory of Multidimensional Activation (Arousal),” . Motivation and Emotion , 2 ( 1 ) : 1 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Thayer , Robert E. 1986 . “Activation-Deactivation Adjective Checklist: Current Overview and Structural Analysis,” . Psychological Reports , 58 ( 2 ) : 607 – 614 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thayer , Robert E. 1989 . The Biophysiology of Mood and Arousal , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wheatley , John J. 1971 . “Marketing and the Use of Fear or Anxiety Arousing Appeals,” . Journal of Marketing , 35 ( April ) : 62 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Witte , Kim . 1992 . “Putting the Fear Back into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel Process Model,” . Communication Monographs , 59 ( December ) : 329 – 349 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte , Kim . 1994 . “Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the Extended Parallel Process Model,” . Communication Monographs , 61 ( 2 ) : 113 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zajonc , Robert B. 1980 . “Feeling and Thinking Preferences Need No Inferences,” . American Psychologist , 35 ( 2 ) : 151 – 175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar