An Exploration of the Effects of Negative Political Advertising on Political Decision Making

References

• Anderson , Norman H. 1965 . “Averaging vs. Adding as a Stimulus-Combination Rule in Impression Formation,” . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 70 ( 4 ) : 394 – 400 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ansolabehere , Stephen , Behr , Roy and Iyengar , Shanto . 1993 . The Media Game , New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Ansolabehere , Stephen , Behr , Roy and Iyengar , Shanto . 1995 . Going Negative: How Political Advertisements Shrink & Polarize the Electorate , New York : The Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Austin , Erica W. and Pinkleton , Bruce E. 1995 . “Positive and Negative Effects of Political Disaffection on the Less Experienced Voter,” . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media , 39 ( 2 ) : 215 – 235 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , Albert . 1986 . Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , Albert . 1997 . Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, New , York : W. H. Freeman and Company .
   Google Scholar
• Boiney , John and Paletz , David L. 1991 . “In Search of the Model Model: Political Science Versus Political Advertising Perspectives on Voter Decision Making,” . In Television and Political Advertising, Volume 1: Psychological Processes , Edited by: Biocca , Frank . 3 – 26 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Bowen , Lawrence , Stamm , Keith and Clark , Fiona . 2000 . “Television Reliance and Political Malaise: A Contingency Analysis,” . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 44 ( 1 ) : 1 – 15 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappella , Joseph N. and Jamieson , Kathleen Hall . 1997 . Spiral of Cynicism: The Press and the Public Good , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Chaffee , Steven H. and Lee Becker , B. 1975 . “Young Voters’ Reactions to Early Watergate Issues,” . American Politics Quarterly , 3 ( 4 ) : 360 – 385 .
   Google Scholar
• Chaffee , Steven H. , Lee Becker , B. and Schleuder , Joan . 1986 . “Measurement and Effects of Attention to Media News,” . Human Communication Research , 13 ( 1 ) : 76 – 107 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , Kevin . 1992 . Political Alienation and Voting Turnout in the United States 1960–1988 , San Francisco : Mellen Research University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Craig , Stephen C. , Niemi , Richard G. and Silver , Glenn E. 1990 . “Political Efficacy and Trust: A Report on the NES Pilot Study Items,” . Political Behavior , 12 ( 3 ) : 289 – 313 .
   Google Scholar
• Crotty , William J. and Jacobson , Gary C. 1980 . American Parties in Decline , Boston : Little, Brown, and Company .
   Google Scholar
• Dennis , Jack and Webster , Carol . 1975 . “Childrens’ Images of the President and of Government in 1962 and 1974,” . American Politics Quarterly , 3 ( 4 ) : 386 – 405 .
   Google Scholar
• Diamond , Edwin and Bates , Stephen . 1988 . The Spot: The Rise of Political Advertising on Television , Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dionne , E. J. Jr. 1991 . Why Americans Hate Politics , New York : Simon and Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Doak , David . 1995 . “Attack Ads: Rethinking the Rules,” . Campaigns & Elections , 16 July : 20 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Faber , Ronald J. , Tims , Albert R. and Schmitt , Kay G. “Accentuate the Negative?: The Impact of Negative Political Appeals on Voting Intent,” . Proceedings of the American Academy of Advertising . Edited by: Stout , Patricia . pp. 10 – 16 . Austin , TX : American Academy of Advertising .
   Google Scholar
• Garramone , Gina M. 1984 . “Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads,” . Journalism Quarterly , 61 ( 2 ) : 250 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garramone , Gina M. 1985 . “Effects of Negative Political Advertising: The Roles of Sponsor and Rebuttal,” . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media , 29 ( 2 ) : 147 – 159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garramone , Gina M. and Smith , Sandra J. 1984 . “Reactions to Political Advertising: Clarifying Sponsor Effects,” . Journalism Quarterly , 61 ( 4 ) : 771 – 775 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grove , Lloyd . 1989 . “How Experts Fueled a Race with Vitriol,” . The Washington Post , : A1 A14 (January 18)
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton , David L. and Huffman , Leroy J. 1971 . “Generality of Impression-Formation Processes for Evaluative and Nonevaluative Judgments,” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 ( 2 ) : 200 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton , David L. , Huffman , Leroy J. and Zanna , Mark P. 1972 . “Differential Weighting of Favorable and Unfavorable Attributes in Impression Formation,” . Journal of Experimental Research in Personality , 6 ( 2–3 ) : 204 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodges , Bert H. 1974 . “Effect of Valence on Relative Weighting in Impression Formation,” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 30 ( 3 ) : 378 – 381 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horn , Randolph C. and Conway , Margaret M. 1996 . “Public Judgment and Political Engagement in the 1992 Election,” . In Broken Contract Changing Relationships Between Americans and Their Government , Edited by: Craig , Stephen C. 110 – 126 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jennings , Kent M. and Niemi , Richard G. 1978 . “The Persistence of Political Orientations: An Over-Time Analysis of Two Generations,” . British Journal of Political Science , 8 : 333 – 363 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karen , S. and Copeland , Gary A. 1989 . “Southern Voters’ Reaction to Negative Political Ads in 1986,” . Journalism Quarterly , 66 ( 4 ) : 888 – 893 . 986
   Google Scholar
• Karen , S. and Copeland , Gary A. “Candidate-Sponsored Negative Political Advertising Effects Reconsidered,” . paper presented to Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication Convention . August , Boston .
   Google Scholar
• Karen , S. and Copeland , Gary A. 1991b . Negative Political Advertising: Coming of Age , Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Jordan , Nehemiah . 1965 . “The ‘Asymmetry’ of ‘Liking’ and ‘Disliking': A Phenomenon Meriting Further Replication and Research,” . Public Opinion Quarterly , 29 ( 2 ) : 315 – 322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaid , Lynda L. and Boydston , John . 1987 . “An Experimental Study of the Effectiveness of Negative Political Advertisements,” . Communication Quarterly , 35 ( 2 ) : 193 – 201 .
   Google Scholar
• Kellermann , Kathy . 1989 . “The Negativity Effect in Interaction: It's All in Your Point of View,” . Human Communication Research , 16 ( 2 ) : 147 – 183 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kernell , S. 1977 . “Presidential Popularity and Negative Voting: An Alternative Explanation of the Mid-Term Congressional Decline of the President's Party,” . American Political Science Review , 71 : 44 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau , Richard R. 1982 . “Negativity in Political Perception,” . Political Behavior , 4 ( 4 ) : 353 – 377 .
   Google Scholar
• Lau , Richard R. 1985 . “Two Explanations for Negativity Effects in Political Behavior,” . American Journal of Political Science , 29 ( 1 ) : 119 – 138 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau , Richard R. and Erber , Ralph . 1985 . “Political Sophistication: An Information-Processing Perspective,” . In Mass Media & Political Thought , Edited by: Kraus , Sidney and Perloff , Richard M. 37 – 64 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• McLeod , Jack M. and McDonald , Daniel G. 1985 . “Beyond Simple Exposure: Media Orientations and Their Impact on Political Processes,” . Communication Research , 12 ( 1 ) : 3 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merritt , Sharyne . 1984 . “Negative Political Advertising: Some Empirical Findings,” . Journal of Advertising , 13 ( 3 ) : 27 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nugent , John F. 1987 . “Positively Negative,” . Campaigns and Elections , 7 March/April : 47 – 49 .
   Google Scholar
• Perloff , Richard M. and Kinsey , Dennis . 1992 . “Political Advertising as Seen by Consultants and Journalists,” . Journal of Advertising Research , 36 May/June : 53 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Pfau , Michael , Kenski , Henry C. , Nitz , Michael and Sorenson , John . 1990 . “Efficacy of Inoculation Strategies in Promoting Resistance to Political Attack Messages: Application to Direct Mail,” . Communication Monographs , 57 ( 1 ) : 25 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkleton , Bruce E. 1997 . “The Effects of Negative Comparative Political Advertising on Candidate Evaluations and Advertising Evaluations: An Exploration,” . Journal of Advertising , 26 ( 1 ) : 19 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkleton , Bruce E. 1998 . “Effects of Print Comparative Political Advertising on Political Decision-Making and Participation,” . Journal of Communication , 48 ( 4 ) : 24 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinkleton , Bruce E. and Austin , Erica W. 1998 . “Media and Participation: Breaking the Spiral of Disaffection,” . In Engaging the Public: How Government and the Media Can Reinvigorate American Democracy , Edited by: Johnson , Thomas J. , Hays , Carol E. and Hays , Scott P. 75 – 86 . Lanham , MD : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Fortman , Kristine K. J. 1998 . “Relationships of Media Use and Political Disaffection to Political Efficacy and Voting Behavior,” . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 42 ( 1 ) : 34 – 49 .
   Google Scholar
• Fortman , Kristine K. J. , Reagan , Joey and Aaronson , Dustin . 1997 . “The Role of Individual Motivations in Information Source Use and Knowledge Concerning Divergent Topics,” . Communication Research Reports , 14 ( 3 ) : 291 – 301 .
   Google Scholar
• Reagan , Joey . 1996 . “The ‘Repertoire’ of Information Sources,” . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 40 ( 1 ) : 112 – 121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roddy , Brian L. and Garramone , Gina M. 1988 . “Appeals and Strategies of Negative Political Advertising,” . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 32 ( 4 ) : 415 – 427 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmore , Barbara G. and Salmore , Stephen A. 1989 . Candidates, Parties, and Campaigns , Washington , DC : Congressional Quarterly Press .
   Google Scholar
• Steward , Charles J. 1975 . “Voter Perception of Mudslinging in Political Communication,” . Central States Speech Journal , 26 ( 4 ) : 279 286
   Google Scholar
• Surlin , Stuart H. and Gordon , Thomas F. 1977 . “How Values Affect Attitudes Toward Direct Reference Political Advertising,” . Journalism Quarterly , 54 ( 1 ) : 89 – 95 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , Paul . 1989 . “Consultants Rise Via the Low Road,” . The Washington Post , : A1 A14 (January 17)
   Google Scholar
• Wilkins , Karin Gwinn . 2000 . “The Role of Media in Public Disengagement from Public Life,” . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 44 ( 4 ) : 569 – 580 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar