Still Trapped in the U.S. Media’s Closet: Representations of Gender-Variant, Pre-Adolescent Children

REFERENCES

• Ablow, K. (2011, April 11). J. Crew plants the seeds for gender identity. FoxNews.com. Retrieved from http://www.foxnews.com/health/2011/04/11/j-crew-plants-seeds-gender-identity/
   Google Scholar
• Adelson, S. L. (2011). Development of AACAP practice parameters for gender nonconformity and gender discordance in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20, 651–663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2008). Answers to your questions: For a better understanding of sexual orientation and homosexuality. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/sexual-orientation.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Asamen, J. K., & Berry, G. L. (2003). The multicultural worldview of children through the lens of television. In E. L. Palmer & B. M. Young (Eds.), The faces of televisual media: Teaching, violence, selling to children (pp. 107–123). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Ausiello, M. (2012, June 13). It’s official: Showtime cancels Weeds, season 8 will be show’s last. TVLine. Retrieved from http://tvline.com/2012/06/13/weeds-cancelled
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1994). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 61–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Banks, T., Medina, B., Moriarty, K., & Redmann, J. (Executive Producers). (2010, January 27). The Tyra Banks show [Television broadcast]. Burbank, CA: CW Television Network.
   Google Scholar
• Barrera, V., & Bielby, D. D. (2001). Places, faces, and other familiar things: The cultural experience of telenovela viewing among Latinos in the United States. Journal of Popular Culture, 34, 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basow, S. A., & Howe, K. G. (1980). Role-model influence: Effects of sex and sex-role attitude in college students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 4, 558–572.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bechdel, A. (n.d.). Dykes to watch out for [Archives]. Retrieved from http://dykestowatchoutfor.com/strip-archive-by-number
   Google Scholar
• Bell, A. (Director). (1999). The sissy duckling [Motion picture]. USA: Home Box Office.
   Google Scholar
• Benabib, R., Burley, M. A., Ellis, S., Kohan, J., Salsberg, M., Vinnecour, L., et al. (Executive Producers). (2005 –2012). Weeds [Television series]. New York, NY: Showtime Networks.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, J. (2006). A queer anxiety: Assimilation politics and cinematic hedonics in Relax … it’s just sex. Journal of Homosexuality, 52(1–2), 101–123.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berliner, A. (Director). (1997). Ma vie en rose [Motion picture]. France: Sony Classics.
   Google Scholar
• Bissell, K. L., & Zhou, P. (2004). Must-see TV or ESPN: Entertainment and sports media exposure and body image distortion in college women. Journal of Communication, 54, 5–21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonds-Raacke, J. M., Cady, E. T., Schlegel, R., Harris, R. J., & Firebaugh, L. (2007). Remembering gay/lesbian media characters: Can Ellen and Will improve attitudes toward homosexuals? Journal of Homosexuality, 53(3), 19–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boon, S. D., & Lomore, C. D. (2001). Admirer-celebrity relationships among young adults: Explaining perceptions of celebrity influence on identity. Human Communication Research, 27, 432–465.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branchik, B. J. (2007). Pansies to parents: Gay male images in American print advertising. Journal of Macromarketing, 27, 38–50.
   Google Scholar
• Branchik, B. J. (2009). Changing the game: Racial and ethnic minority depictions in advertisements in Sports illustrated magazine. Proceedings of the Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing, 14, 7–10.
   Google Scholar
• Brennan, I., Di Loreto, D., Falchuk, B., & Murphy, R. (Executive Producers). (2009 –). Glee [Television series]. Hollywood, CA: FOX Broadcasting Company.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, P. L. (2006, December 2). Supporting boys or girls when the line isn’t clear. New York Times, p. A1.
   Google Scholar
• Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the discursive limits of “sex.” London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J., & Carilli, T. (2013). Revisiting Vito Russo’s The celluloid closet. In J. Campbell & T. Carilli (Eds.), Queer media images: LGBT perspectives (pp. 41–53). Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Caro, N. (Director). (2002). Whale rider [Motion picture]. New Zealand: South Pacific Pictures.
   Google Scholar
• Cheung, C., & Yue, X. D. (2003). Adolescent modeling after luminary and star idols and development of self-efficacy. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 11, 251–267.
   Google Scholar
• Children’s National Medical Center. (n.d.). If you are concerned about your child’s gender behaviors: A guide for parents [Brochure]. Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Cibrowski, T. (Senior Executive Producer). (2011, April 13). Good morning America [Television broadcast]. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, C. (1969). Television and social controls: Some observation of the portrayal of ethnic minorities. Television Quarterly, 9(2), 18–22.
   Google Scholar
• Coleman, R. R. M., & Yochim, E. C. (2008). The symbolic annihilation of race: A review of the “blackness” literature. African American Research Perspectives, 12, 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, N. R., Lumadue, C. A., & Wooten, H. R. (2009). Buffy the vampire slayer and Xena: Warrior Princess: Reception of the texts by a sample of lesbian fans and web site users. Journal of Homosexuality, 56, 575–609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comstock, G., & Scharrer, E. (2007). Media and the American child. Burlington, MA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Condon, J. (Executive Producer). (2011, October 31). Nightline [Television broadcast]. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.
   Google Scholar
• Corbett, K. (1999). Homosexual boyhood: Notes on girlyboys. In M. Rottnek (Ed.), Sissies & tomboys: Gender nonconformity & homosexual childhood (pp. 107–139). New York, NY: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cortese, A. J. (2007). Provocateur: Images of women and minorities in advertising (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Cover, R. (2000). First contact: Queer theory, sexual identity, and “mainstream” film. International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, 5, 71–89.
   Google Scholar
• Croteau, D., Hoynes, W., & Milan, S. (2012). Media/society: Industries, images, and audiences (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Daldry, S. (Director). (2000). Billy Elliot [Motion picture]. United Kingdom: Universal.
   Google Scholar
• Davenport, C. W. (1986). A follow-up study of 10 feminine boys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 15, 511–517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, S. N. (2003). Sex stereotypes in commercials targeted toward children: A content analysis. Sociological Spectrum, 23, 407–424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, J. P. (2009). The boy who would be queen: Hints and closets on children’s television. Journal of Homosexuality, 56, 738–756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, J. P. (2010). Drawing desire: Male youth and homoerotic fan art. Journal of LGBT Youth, 7, 6–28.
   Google Scholar
• dePaola, T. (1979). Oliver Button is a sissy. Orlando, FL: Voyager Books.
   Google Scholar
• Dobinson, C., & Young, K. (2000). Popular cinema and lesbian interpretive strategies. Journal of Homosexuality, 42(2), 97–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummond, K. D., Bradley, S. J., Peterson-Badali, M., & Zucker, K. J. (2008). A follow-up study of girls with gender identity disorder. Developmental Psychology, 44, 34–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duggan, L. (2002). The new homonormativity. In R. Castronovo & D. Nelson (Eds.), Materializing democracy: Toward a revitalized cultural politics (pp. 175–194). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Duggan, S. J., & McCreary, D. R. (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and the drive for muscularity in gay and heterosexual men: The influence of media images. Journal of Homosexuality, 47(3–4), 45–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunphy, R. (2000). Sexual politics: An introduction. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ehrensaft, D. (2011). Gender born, gender made: Raising healthy gender-nonconforming children. New York, NY: The Experiment.
   Google Scholar
• Epstein, B. J. (2012). We’re here, we’re (not?) queer: GLBTQ characters in children’s books. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 8, 287–300.
   Google Scholar
• Evans, V. D. (2007). Curved TV: The impact of televisual images on gay youth. American Communication Journal, 9(3), 7.
   Google Scholar
• Farley, S., Kostelnik, J., & O’Donnell, R. (Executive Producers). (2011, November 14). The Rosie show [Television broadcast]. Chicago, IL: Oprah Winfrey Network.
   Google Scholar
• Fausto-Sterling, A. (2000). Sexing the body: Gender politics and the construction of sexuality. New York, NY: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Feder, S., & Hollar, J. (Directors). (2006). Boy I am [Motion picture]. New York, NY: Women Make Movies.
   Google Scholar
• Feilitzen, C., & Linne, O. (1975). Identifying with television characters. Journal of Communication, 25, 51–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fetner, T. (2005). Ex-gay rhetoric and the politics of sexuality: The Christian antigay/pro-family movement’s “Truth in love” ad campaign. Journal of Homosexuality, 50(1), 71–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fields, J., Hayek, S., Horta, S., Silverman, B., & Tamez, J. (Executive Producers). (2006 -10). Ugly Betty [Television series]. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.
   Google Scholar
• Fierstein, H. (2002). The sissy duckling (H. Cole, Illustrator). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, D. A., Hill, D. L., Grube, J. W., & Gruber, E. L. (2007). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual content on television: A quantitative analysis across two seasons. Journal of Homosexuality, 52(3–4), 167–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, M. R. (2010). “Evolutionary stages of minorities in the mass media”: An application of Clark’s model to American Indian television representations. The Howard Journal of Communications, 21, 367–384.
   Google Scholar
• Fouts, G., & Inch, R. (2005). Homosexuality in TV situation comedies: Characters and verbal comments. Journal of Homosexuality, 49(1), 35–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuentez, T., & White, S. E. (1997). Analysis of black images in comic strips, 1915–1995. Newspaper Research Journal, 18(1–2), 72–85.
   Google Scholar
• Funke, C. (2003). The princess knight ( K. Meyer, Illustrator; A. Bell, Trans.). Frome, England: Chicken House.
   Google Scholar
• Gadsden, G. Y. (2002). Crooked men and straightened women: Images of homosexuality across race in two women’s magazines, 1986–1995. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2), 59–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauntlett, D. (2008). Media, gender and identity: An introduction (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gay & Lesbian Alliance against Defamation. (2012). Where we are on TV: 2012–2013 season. Retrieved from http://issuu.com/glaad/docs/whereweareontv12?mode=window&backgroundColor=%23222222
   Google Scholar
• Gay & Lesbian Alliance against Defamation. (2013). 2013 studio responsibility index. Retrieved from http://www.glaad.org/sri
   Google Scholar
• Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television. Journal of Communication, 26, 172–199.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., Signorielli, N., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Growing up with television: Cultivation processes. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 43–68). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Gergen, K. J. (2000). An invitation to social construction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, R. (2006). From zero to 24-7: Images of sexual minorities on television. In L. Castaneda & S. Campbell (Eds.), News and sexuality: Media portraits of diversity (pp. 256–277). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Gill, R. (2007). Gender and the media. Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gitlin, T. (1985). Inside prime time. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
   Google Scholar
• Giuliano, T. A., Turner, K. L., Lundquist, J. C., & Knight, J. L. (2007). Gender and the selection of public athletic role models. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 161–198.
   Google Scholar
• Gomillion, S. C., & Giuliano, T. A. (2011). The influence of media role models on gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 58, 330–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonsoulin, M. E. (2010). Liberated and inclusive? An analysis of self-representation in a popular lesbian magazine. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 1158–1173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodridge, M. (2003, January). Does MPAA = most parents are antigay? Advocate, 37, 82–85.
   Google Scholar
• Gorham, B. W. (2013). The social psychology of stereotypes: Implications for media audiences. In R. A. Lind (Ed.), Race/gender/class/media 3.0: Considering diversity across content, audiences, and production (3rd ed., pp. 17–30). Boston, MA: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Green, R. (1987). The “sissy boy syndrome” and the development of homosexuality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg, B. S., Mastro, D., & Brand, J. E. (2002). Minorities and the mass media: Television into the 21st century. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 333–352). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Griffin, C. W., & Wirth, M. J. (1996). Beyond acceptance: Parents of lesbians and gays talk about their experiences. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Groening, M., Brooks, J. L., Simon, S., & Hauge, R. (Writers), & Anderson, M. B. (Director). (1997). Homer’s phobia [Television series episode]. In J. L. Brooks, M. Groening, B. Oakley, S. Simon, & J. Weinstein (Executive Producers), The Simpsons. Los Angeles, CA: 20th Century Fox Television.
   Google Scholar
• Grogan, S. (2008). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women, and children (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Gross, L. (2001). Up from invisibility: Lesbians, gay men, and the media in America. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Grubstick, D., Higginbotham, A., & Horta, S. (Writers), & Wolk, A. (Director). (2010). All the world’s a stage [Television series episode]. In J. Fields, S. Hayek, S. Horta, & B. Silverman (Executive Producers), Ugly Betty. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.
   Google Scholar
• Hammack, P. L. (2005). The life course development of human sexual orientation: An integrative paradigm. Human Development, 48, 267–290.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harro, B. (2013). The cycle of socialization. In M. Adams, W. Blumenfeld, C. Castaneda, H. W. Hackman, M. L. Peters, & X. Zuniga (Eds.), Readings for diversity and social justice (3rd ed., pp. 45–51). London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, K-P. R. (2000). Representing gay men on American television. Journal of Men’s Studies, 9, 59–79.
   Google Scholar
• Herskovitz, M., & Zwick, E. (Executive Producers). (1999 –2002). Once and again [Television series]. New York, NY: American Broadcast Company.
   Google Scholar
• Herskovitz, M., Zwick, E., Holzman, W., & Friedman, M. (Writers), & Norris, P. R. (Director). (2002). The gay-straight alliance [Television series episode]. In M. Herskovitz & E. Zwick (Executive Producers), Once and again. New York, NY: American Broadcast Company.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, D. B., & Menvielle, E. (2009). “You have to give them a place where they feel protected and safe and loved”: The views of parents who have gender-variant children and adolescents. Journal of LGBT Youth, 6, 243–271.
   Google Scholar
• Ho, H. K. (2013). Negotiating the mediascape: Asian-American men and American mass media. In R. A. Lind (Ed.), Race/gender/class/media 3.0: Considering diversity across content, audiences, and production (3rd ed., pp. 56–62). Boston, MA: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, D., & Halim, A. A. (2013). How TV makes Arabs and Muslims feel about themselves. In R. A. Lind (Ed.), Race/gender/class/media 3.0: Considering diversity across content, audiences, and production (3rd ed., pp. 68–74). Boston, MA: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Izzard, E., Lipkin, D., Morgan, M., O’Fallon, P., Oseary, G., Prestwich, D., et al. (Executive Producers). (2007 –2008). The Riches [Television series]. Dallas, TX: FX Networks.
   Google Scholar
• Jennings, K., & Shapiro, P. (2002). Always my child: A parent’s guide to understanding your gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered or questioning son or daughter. New York, NY: Fireside.
   Google Scholar
• Jessica. (2011, April 14). Shocking pink? Mom paints boy’s toenails in J. Crew ad [Online comment to news story]. CNN.com. Retrieved from http://am.blogs. cnn.com/ 2011/04/13/shocking-pink-mom-paints-boys-toenails-in-j-crew-ad/
   Google Scholar
• Jhally, S., & Lewis, J. (1992). Enlightened racism: The Cosby Show, audiences, and the myth of the American dream. Boulder, CO: Westview.
   Google Scholar
• Kalter, L. (2008). Catching up. American Journalism Review, 30(5), 10–11.
   Google Scholar
• Karunanayake, D., & Nauta, M. M. (2004). The relationship between race and students’ identified career role models and perceived role model influence. Career Development Quarterly, 52, 225–234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelso, T. (2008). And now no word from our sponsor: How HBO puts the risk back into television. In M. Leverette, B. L. Ott, & C. L. Buckley (Eds.), It’s not TV: Watching HBO in the post-television era (pp. 46–64). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, K. (2011). They should suffer like the rest of us: Queer equality in narrative mediocrity. Cinema Journal, 50, 139–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilodavis, C. (2010). My princess boy: A mom’s story about a young boy who loves to dress up (S. DeSimone, Illustrator). New York, NY: Alladin.
   Google Scholar
• Kivel, B. D., & Kleiber, D. A. (2000). Leisure in the identity formation of lesbian/gay youth: Personal, but not social. Leisure sciences, 22, 215–232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohan, J. (Writer), & Spiro, L. L. (Director). (2005). The godmother [Television series episode]. In R. Benabib, M. A. Burley, S. Ellis, J. Kohan, M. Salsberg, L. Vinnecour, et al. (Executive Producers), Weeds. New York, NY: Showtime Networks.
   Google Scholar
• Lebovitz, P. S. (1972). Feminine behavior in boys: Aspects of its outcome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 103–109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lelchuk, I. (2006, August 27). When is it OK for boys to be girls, and girls to be boys? Many kids want to look and act like the other sex. For some, it’s a phase; for others, it’s not. Parents and schools are adjusting. San Francisco Chronicle, A1.
   Google Scholar
• Lester, N. A. (2007). (Un)happily ever after: Fairy tale morals, moralities, and heterosexism in children’s texts. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Issues in Education, 4(2), 55–74.
   Google Scholar
• Levitan, S., & Lloyd, C. (Creators). (2009–). Modern family [Television series]. Los Angeles, CA: 20th Century Fox Television.
   Google Scholar
• Lind, R. A. (2013). Laying a foundation for studying race, gender, class, and the media. In R. A. Lind (Ed.), Race/gender/class/media 3.0: Considering diversity across content, audiences, and production (3rd ed., pp. 1–12). Boston, MA: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Lipkin, D., & Blitzstein, A. (Writers), & O’Fallon, P. (Director). (2007). Operation education [Television series episode]. In E. Izzard, D. Lipkin, M. Morgan, P. O’Fallon, G. Oseary, D. Prestwich, et al. (Executive Producers), The Riches. Dallas, TX: FX Networks.
   Google Scholar
• Lipkin, D., & Izzard, E. (Writers), & Franklin, C., & O’Fallon, P. (Directors). (2007). Pilot [Television series episode]. In E. Izzard, D. Lipkin, M. Morgan, P. O’Fallon, G. Oseary, D. Prestwich, et al. (Executive Producers), The Riches. Dallas, TX: FX Networks.
   Google Scholar
• Lisotta, C. (2007, March 27). Queer kid on the block: FX’s The Riches features the latest in a growing trend of queer kids on television. Advocate. Retrieved from http://www. advocate.com/news/2007/03/27/queer-kid-block
   Google Scholar
• Lockwood, P. (2006). “Someone like me can be successful?”: Do college students need same-gender role models? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 36–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luther, C. A., Lepre, C. R., & Clark, N. (2012). Diversity in U.S. mass media [Kindle Fire HD]. Retrieved from http://www.amazon.com/Diversity-U-S-Media-Catherine-Luther-ebook/dp/B005MJF9T6/ref=sr_1_1?s=digital-text¡UTF8&qid=1384715196&sr=1-1&keywords=diversity+in+us+mass+media
   Google Scholar
• Magder, T. (2004). The end of TV 101: Reality programs, formats, and the new business of television. In S. Murray & L. Ouellette (Eds.), Reality TV: Remaking television culture. New York, NY: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, A. C. (2008). Television media as a potential negative factor in the racial identity development of African-American youth. Academic Psychiatry, 32, 338–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, D. (2009, December 2). ABC moves Ugly Betty to Wednesdays at 10—but will it help? Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://latimesblogs. latimes.com/showtracker/2009/12/abc-moves-ugly-betty-to-wednesdays-at-10-but-will-it-help.html
   Google Scholar
• Matthews, D. (2003). Media memories: The first cable/VCR generation recalls their childhood and adolescent media viewing. Media Communication and Society, 6, 219–241.
   Google Scholar
• Mazur, M. A., & Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2003). The effect of movie portrayals on audience attitudes about nontraditional families and sexual orientation. Journal of Homosexuality, 44(1), 157–181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDaniel, M. (2007, March 12). FX’s The Riches will try to con you. Houston Chronicle. Retrieved from http://www.chron.com/entertainment/article/FX-s-The-Riches-will-try-to-con-you-1534252.php
   Google Scholar
• McQuail, D. (2005). McQuail’s mass communication theory (5th ed.). London, UK: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, M. D. E. (2003). “It’s me. I’m it.” Defining adolescent sexual identity through relational dialectics in Dawson’s Creek. Communication Quarterly, 51, 262–276.
   Google Scholar
• Milestone, K., & Meyer, A. (2012). Gender and popular culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Money, J., & Russo, A. J. (1979). Homosexual outcome of discordant gender identity/role in childhood: Longitudinal follow up. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 4, 29–41.
   Google Scholar
• Monro, S. (2005). Gender politics: Citizenship, activism and sexual diversity. London, UK: Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, C. (Executive Producer). (2011, June 7–9). Anderson Cooper 360 [Television broadcast]. New York, NY: Cable News Network.
   Google Scholar
• Morrison, E. G. (2010). Transgender as ingroup or outgroup? Lesbian, gay, and bisexual viewers respond to a transgender character in daytime television. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 650–665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, A. (2008). African American stereotypes in prime-time television: An overview, 1948–2007. In T. Boyd (Ed.), African Americans and popular culture: Theater, film, and television (pp. 185–216). Westport, CT: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Netzley, S. B. (2010). Visibility that demystifies: Gays, gender, and sex on television. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 968–986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neufeld, V. (Executive Producer). (2007, April 27). 20/20 [Television broadcast]. New York, NY: American Broadcasting Company.
   Google Scholar
• Ng, E. (2008). Reading the romance of fan cultural production: Music videos of a television lesbian couple. Popular Communication, 6, 103–121.
   Google Scholar
• Nowlan, B. (2006). The politics of love in three recent U.S. and U.K. films of young gay romance: A symptomatic reading of Beautiful thing, Get real, and Edge of seventeen. Journal of Homosexuality, 50(4), 141–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ochman, J. M. (1996). The effects of nongender-role stereotyped, same-sex role models in storybooks on the self-esteem of children in grade three. Sex Roles, 35, 711–736.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Shaughnessy, M., & Stadler, J. (2008). Media & society (4th ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ott, B. L., & Mack, R. L. (2010). Critical media studies: An introduction. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Padva, G. (2008). Educating The Simpsons: Teaching queer representations in contemporary visual media. Journal of LGBT Youth, 5(3), 57–73.
   Google Scholar
• Paoletti, J. B. (2012). Pink and blue: Telling the boys from the girls in America. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Perse, E. M. (2001). Media effects and society. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Picora, N., Murray, J. P., & Wartella, E. A. (Eds.). (2007). Children and television: 50 years of research. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Pleak, R. R. (1999). Ethical issues in diagnosing and treating gender-dysphoric children and adolescents. In M. Rottnek (Ed.), Sissies & tomboys: Gender nonconformity & homosexual childhood (pp. 34–51). New York, NY: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pleak, R. R. (2011). Gender identity issues in youth: Opportunities, terminologies, histories, and advancements. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20, 601–625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter, W. J. (2008). Media literacy (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Pratt, M. (2008). This is the way we live … and love! Feeding on and still hungering for lesbian representation in The L word. In R. Beirned (Ed.), Televising queer women: A reader (pp. 135–147). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Radway, J. (1991). Reading the romance: Women, patriarchy, and popular literature. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Raley, A. B., & Lucas, J. L. (2006). Stereotype or success? Prime-Time television’s portrayals of gay male, lesbian, and bisexual characters. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(2), 19–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rand, D. (2013, June 26). The 20 most and least gay-friendly countries in the world. GlobalPost. Retrieved from http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/politics/130607/the-20-most-and-least-gay-friendly-countries-the-world
   Google Scholar
• Reischel, J. (2006, May 30). See Tom be Jane: The country’s youngest transgender child is ready for school. But is school ready for her? Village Voice. Retrieved from http://www.villagevoice.com/2006-05-30/news/see-tom-be-jane
   Google Scholar
• Rigney, M. (2003 /2004). Brandon goes to Hollywood: Boys don’t cry and the transgender body in film. Film Criticism, 28(2), 4–23.
   Google Scholar
• Ringo, P. (2002). Media roles in female-to-male transsexual and transgender identity formation. International Journal of Transgenderism, 6(3), 1.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, T., Callister, M., Clark, B., & Phillips, J. (2009). Violence, sexuality, and gender stereotyping: A content analysis of official video game web sites. Web Journal of Mass Communication Research, 13, 1–17.
   Google Scholar
• Rockefeller, E. I. (2009). Selection, inclusion, evaluation and defense of transgender-inclusive fiction for young adults: A resource guide. Journal of LGBT Youth, 6, 288–309.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenblum, D. (1994). Queer intersectionality and the failure of lesbian and gay “victories.” Law and Sexuality, 4, 83–122.
   Google Scholar
• Rosin, H. (2008, November). A boy’s life. Atlantic Monthly, 302, 56–71.
   Google Scholar
• Russo, V. (1987). The celluloid closet: Homosexuality in the movies (rev. ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
   Google Scholar
• Saucier, J. A., & Caron, S. L. (2008). An investigation of content and media images in gay men’s magazines. Journal of Homosexuality, 55, 504–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiappa, E., Gregg, P. B., & Hewes, D. E. (2006). Can one TV show make a difference? Will & Grace and the parasocial contact hypothesis. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(4), 15–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulman, M. (2013, January 19). Generation LGBTQIA. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/10/fashion/generation-lgbtqia.html?pagewanted=all
   Google Scholar
• Shatto, R. (2010). 10 reasons lesbians should watch Weeds: Not a fan already? We’ve got 10 good reasons you should be. Curve. Retrieved from http://www. curvemag.com/Curve-Magazine/Web-Articles-2008/10-Reasons-Lesbians-Should-Watch-Weeds/
   Google Scholar
• Siebler, K. (2010). Transqueer representations and how we educate. Journal of LGBT Youth, 7, 320–345.
   Google Scholar
• Siebler, K. (2012). Transgender transitions: Sex/gender binaries in the digital age. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 16, 74–99.
   Google Scholar
• Signorielli, N. (2001). Television’s contribution to stereotyping: Past, present, future. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 341–358). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Sikka, M. (Executive Producer). (2012, February 21). Morning edition [Radio broadcast]. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.
   Google Scholar
• Slattery, K., Doremus, M., & Marcus, L. (2001). Shifts in public affairs reporting on the network evening news: A move toward the sensational. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45, 290–302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smiley, L. (2007, July 11). Girl/boy interrupted: A new treatment for transgendered kids puts puberty on hold so they won’t develop into their biological sex. San Francisco Weekly. Retrieved from http://www.sfweekly.com/2007-07-11/news/girl-boy-interrupted/full
   Google Scholar
• Speaktruthe. (2008, November). A boy’s life [Online comment to news story]. Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved from http://archive.is/kVmzq
   Google Scholar
• Spring, J. (2003). Educating the consumer-citizen: A history of the marriage of schools, advertising, and media. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Stadtmiller, M. (2011, April 19). Male polish: After a J. Crew ad with a mom painting her son’s toenails sparked a national debate, a NYC mom defends her choice to do the same. New York Post. Retrieved from http://www.nypost.com/p/entertainment/male_ polish_bND0z2gbn2vUZiesDmE68L
   Google Scholar
• Steensma, T. D., Biemond, R., de Boer, F., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2010). Desisting and persisting gender dysphoria after childhood: A qualitative follow-up study. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16(4), 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Streitmatter, R. (2003). How youth media can help combat homophobia among American teenagers. New York, NY: GLAAD Center for the Study of Media & Society.
   Google Scholar
• Streitmatter, R. (2009). From “perverts” to “fab five”: The media’s changing depiction of gay men and lesbians. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, N. (2012). U.S. children’s picture books and the homonormative subject. Journal of LGBT Youth, 9, 136–152.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, J. B. (1995). The media and modernity: A social theory of the media. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys at school. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thussu, D. K. (2007). News as entertainment: The rise of global infotainment. London, UK: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Tropiano, S. (2002). The prime time closet: A history of gays and lesbians on TV. New York, NY: Applause Books.
   Google Scholar
• Tuchman, G. (1978). The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media. In G. Tuchman, A. K. Daniels, & J. W. Benet (Eds.), Hearth and home: Images of women in the mass media (pp. 5–38). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Turpin, C. (Executive Producer). (2008, September 2). All things considered [Radio broadcast]. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.
   Google Scholar
• US Weekly staff. (2010, June 28). Angelina Jolie: Shiloh “wants to be a boy.” US Weekly Online. Retrieved from http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-moms/news/angelina-jolie-shiloh-wants-to-be-a-boy-2010286
   Google Scholar
• Van Evra, J. (2004). Television and child development (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Vera, H., & Gordon, A. M. (2003). Screen saviors: Hollywood fictions of whiteness. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Wallien, M. S. C., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2008). Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1413–1423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, C., & Fenstermaker, S. (1995). Doing difference. Gender and Society, 9, 8–37.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1, 125–151.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilchins, R. (2013). Read my lips: Sexual subversion and the end of gender. Riverdale, NY: Magnus Books.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, M. E. (2012, April 19). When your child is gay: Kids are coming out at younger and younger ages—and parents need to help them. Here’s how. Salon. Retrieved from http://www.salon.com/2012/04/18/when_your_child_is_gay/?source=newsletter
   Google Scholar
• Willox, A. (2003). Branding Teena: (Mis)representations in the media. Sexualities, 6, 407–425.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, C. C., II, Gutiérrez, F., & Chao, L. M. (2013). Racism, sexism, and the media: The rise of class communication in multicultural America (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Witt, S. D. (2001). The influence of television on children’s gender role socialization. Childhood Education, 76, 322–324.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, M. A., Krakow, M. S., & Taff, R. (2013). Women with physical disabilities, body image, media, and self-conception. In R. A. Lind (Ed.), Race/gender/class/media 3.0: Considering diversity across content, audiences, and production (3rd ed., pp. 50–56). Boston, MA: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Zucker, K. J., & Bradley, S. J. (1995). Gender identity disorder and psychosexual problems in children and adolescents. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zuger, B. (1978). Effeminate behavior present in boys from childhood: Ten additional years of follow-up. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 19, 363–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuger, B. (1988). Is early effeminate behavior in boys early homosexuality? Comprehensive Psychiatry, 29, 509–519.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar