1,949
Views
9
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Beyond Simple Differences: Moderators of Gender Differences in Heteronormativity

, PhDORCID Icon, , MS, , MS, , MS & , PhD

References

  • Allport, G. W., & Kramer, B. M. (1946). Some roots of prejudice. Journal of Psychology, 22, 9–39. doi:10.1080/00223980.1946.9917293
  • Andersen, R., & Fetner, T. (2008). Cohort differences in tolerance of homosexuality: attitudinal change in Canada and the United States, 1981–2000. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72(2), 311–330. doi:10.1093/poq/nfn017
  • Aosved, A. C., Long, P. J., & Voller, E. K. (2009). Measuring sexism, racism, sexual prejudice, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance: The intolerant schema measure. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(10), 2321–2354. doi:10.1111/jasp.2009.39.issue-10
  • Banks, K. H., Murry, T., Brown, N., & Hammond, W. P. (2014). The impact of feminist attitudes on the relation between racial awareness and racial identity. Sex Roles, 70(5–6), 232–239. doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0350-3
  • Battle, J., & Lemelle, A. (2002). Gender differences in African American attitudes towards gay males. Western Journal of Black Studies, 26(3), 134–139.
  • Becker, J. C., & Wagner, U. (2009). Doing gender differently—The interplay of strength of gender identification and content of gender identity in predicting women’s endorsement of sexist beliefs. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39(4), 487–508. doi:10.1002/ejsp.v39:4
  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162. doi:10.1037/h0036215
  • Berent, J., Falomir-Pichastor, J. M., & Chipeaux, M. (2016). Masculinity and sexual prejudice: A matter of heterosexual men’s need to differentiate themselves from women and gay men. In K. Faniko, F. Lorenzi-Cioldi, O. Sarrasin, & E. Mayor (Eds.), Gender and social hierarchies: Perspectives from social psychology (pp. 175–187). New York, NY, US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Berg, J. A. (2010). Race, class, gender, and social space: Using an intersectional approach to study immigration attitudes. Sociological Quarterly, 51(2), 278–302. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01172.x
  • Berg, J. A., & Morley, S. (2014). Intersectionality and the foreign-born: Explaining the variation in the immigration attitudes of immigrants. Race, Gender & Class, 21(3/4), 32–47.
  • Bickmore, K. (2002). How might social education resist heterosexism? Facing the impact of gender and sexual ideology on citizenship. Theory & Research in Social Education, 30(2), 198–216. doi:10.1080/00933104.2002.10473191
  • Bilimoria, D., & Stewart, A. J. (2009). “Don’t ask, don’t tell”: The academic climate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender faculty in science and engineering. National Women’s Studies Association Journal, 21(2), 85–103.
  • Blackwell, L. V., Snyder, L. A., & Mavriplis, C. (2009). Diverse faculty in STEM fields: Attitudes, performance, and fair treatment. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2(4), 195–205. doi:10.1037/a0016974
  • Brewster, K. L., & Padavic, I. (2000). Change in gender ideology, 1977–1996: Thecontributions of intracohort change and population turnover. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(2), 477–487. doi:10.1111/jomf.2000.62.issue-2
  • Bryant, A. N. (2003). Changes in attitudes toward women’s roles: Predicting gender-role traditionalism among college students. Sex Roles, 48, 131–142. doi:10.1023/A:1022451205292
  • Campbell, C., & Horowitz, J. (2016). Does college influence sociopolitical attitudes? Sociology of Education, 89(1), 40–58. doi:10.1177/0038040715617224
  • Campbell-Whatley, G. D., Wang, C., Toms, O., & Williams, N. (2015). Factors affecting campus climate: Creating a welcoming environment. New Waves Educational Research & Development, 18, 40–52.
  • Cartwright, A., Roche, B., Gogarty, M., O’Reilly, A., & Stewart, I. (2016). Using a modified Function Acquisition Speed Test (FAST) for assessing implicit gender stereotypes. The Psychological Record, 66(2), 223–233. doi:10.1007/s40732-016-0164-5
  • Carvacho, H., Zick, A., Haye, A., González, R., Manzi, J., Kocik, C., & Bertl, M. (2013). On the relation between social class and prejudice: The roles of education, income, and ideological attitudes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(4), 272–285. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1961
  • Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 785–810. doi:10.1086/669608
  • Chonody, J. M., Woodford, M. R., Brennan, D. J., Newman, B., & Wang, D. (2014). Attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women among heterosexual social work faculty. Journal of Social Work Education, 50(1), 136–152. doi:10.1080/10437797.2014.856239
  • Ciabattari, T. (2001). Changes in men’s conservative ideologies: Cohort and period influences. Gender & Society, 15(4), 574–591. doi:10.1177/089124301015004005
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Routledge Academic.
  • Collier, K. L., Bos, H. M., Merry, M. S., & Sandfort, T. G. (2012). Gender, ethnicity, religiosity, and same-sex sexual attraction and the acceptance of same-sex sexuality and gender non-conformity. Sex Roles, 68(11–12), 724–737.
  • Corrigall, E. A., & Konrad, A. M. (2007). Gender role attitudes and careers: A longitudinal study. Sex Roles, 56(11–12), 847–855. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9242-0
  • Dinella, L. M., Fulcher, M., & Weisgram, E. S. (2014). Sex-typed personality traits and gender identity as predictors of young adults’ career interests. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(3), 493–504. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0234-6
  • Dodson, T. A., & Borders, L. D. (2006). Men in traditional and nontraditional careers: Gender role attitudes, gender role conflict, and job satisfaction. Career Development Quarterly, 54, 283–296. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2006.tb00194.x
  • Drury, B. J., & Kaiser, C. R. (2014). Allies against sexism: The role of men in confronting sexism. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 637–652. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/josi.12083
  • Eagly, A. H. (2009). The his and hers of prosocial behavior: An examination of the social psychology of gender. American Psychologist, 64(8), 644–658. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.64.8.644
  • Eaton, A., & Matamala, A. (2014). The relationship between heteronormative beliefs and verbal sexual coercion in college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(7), 1443–1457. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0284-4
  • Eldridge, V., Mack, L., & Swank, E. (2006). Explaining comfort with homosexuality in rural America. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(2), 39–56. doi:10.1300/J082v51n02_03
  • Engberg, M. E., Hurtado, S., & Smith, G. C. (2007). Developing attitudes of acceptance toward lesbian, gay, and bisexual peers: Enlightenment, contact, and the college experience. Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education, 3, 49–77. doi:10.1300/J367v04n03_05
  • Epstein, D., O’Flynn, S., & Telford, D. (2003). Silenced sexualities in schools and universities. Sterling, VA: Trentham Books.
  • Fernández, M. L., Castro, Y. R., Otero, M. C., Foltz, M. L., & Fernández, M. V. C. (2007). Expressive-instrumental traits and sexist attitudes among Spanish university professors. Social Indicators Research, 80(3), 583–599. doi:10.1007/s11205-006-0008-9
  • Finlay, B., & Scheltema, K. K. (1999). Masculinity scores as an artifact of feminist attitude: Evidence from a study of lesbians and college women. Journal of Homosexuality, 37(4), 139–147. doi:10.1300/J082v37n04_09
  • Fischer, E., & Arnold, S. J. (1994). Sex, gender identity, gender role attitudes, and consumer behavior. Psychology & Marketing, 11(2), 163–182. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1520-6793
  • Funk, R. B., & Willits, F. K. (1987). College attendance and attitude change: A panel study, 1970–81. Sociology of Education, 60(4), 224–231. doi:10.2307/2112558
  • Gender Identity in U.S. Surveillance Group. (2013). Gender-related measures overview. Los Angeles, CA: Williams Institute. Retrieved from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/GenIUSS-Gender-related-Question-Overview.pdf
  • Guittar, N. A., & Pals, H. (2014). Intersecting gender with race and religiosity: Do unique social categories explain attitudes toward homosexuality? Current Sociology, 62(1), 41–62. doi:10.1177/0011392113516985
  • Habarth, J. M. (2015). Development of the heteronormative attitudes and beliefs scale. Psychology and Sexuality, 6(2), 166–188. doi:10.1080/19419899.2013.876444
  • Haines, E., Deaux, K., & Lofaro, N. (2016). The times they are a-changing… Or are they not? A comparison of gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 353–363. doi:10.1177/0361684316634081
  • Haney, J. L. (2016). Predictors of homonegativity in the United States and the Netherlands using the fifth wave of the world values survey. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(10), 1355–1377. doi:10.1080/00918369.2016.1157997
  • Harbaugh, E., & Lindsey, E. W. (2015). Attitudes toward homosexuality among young adults: Connections to gender role identity, gender-typed activities, and religiosity. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(8), 1098–1125. doi:10.1080/00918369.2015.1021635
  • Hastie, B. (2007). Higher education and sociopolitical orientation: The role of social influence in the liberalisation of students. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22(3), 259–274. doi:10.1007/BF03173425
  • Herek, G. M. (1988). Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: Correlates and gender differences. The Journal of Sex Research, 25, 451–477. doi:10.1080/00224498809551476
  • Herek, G. M. (2004). Beyond “homophobia”: Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 1(2), 6–24. doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6
  • Hicks, G. R., & Lee, T. (2006). Public attitudes toward gays and lesbians: Trends and predictors. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(2), 57–77. doi:10.1300/J082v51n04_06
  • Hill, S. (2002). Teaching and doing gender in African American families. Sex Roles, 47(11–12), 493–506. doi:10.1023/A:1022026303937
  • Jackson, S. (2006). Gender, sexuality and heterosexuality: The complexity (and limits) of heteronormativity. Feminist Theory, 7(1), 105–121. doi:10.1177/1464700106061462
  • James, P. (1999). Masculinities under reconstruction: Classroom pedagogy and cultural change. Gender and Education, 11(4), 395–412. doi:10.1080/09540259920474
  • Jason, L. A. (2015). Ethical and diversity challenges in ecologically sensitive systems-oriented interventions. American Psychologist, 70(8), 764–775. doi:10.1037/a0039642
  • Jellison, W. A., McConnell, A. R., & Gabriel, S. (2004). Implicit and explicit measures of sexual orientation attitudes: Ingroup preferences and related behaviors and beliefs among gay and straight men. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(5), 629–642. doi:10.1177/0146167203262076
  • Kane, E. W., & Kyyrö, E. K. (2001). For whom does education enlighten? Race, gender, education, and beliefs about social inequality. Gender and Society, 15(5), 710–733. doi:10.1177/089124301015005005
  • Kardia, D. (1996). Diversity’s closet: Student attitudes toward lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people on a multicultural campus. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57, 1090.
  • Keiller, S. W. (2010). Masculine norms as correlates of heterosexual men’s attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 11(1), 38–52. doi:10.1037/a0017540
  • Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E., Jr. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336–353. doi:10.1177/0146167296224002
  • Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E., Jr. (1998). Do heterosexual women and men differ in their attitudes toward homosexuality? A conceptual and methodological analysis. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (pp. 39–61). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Kitzinger, C. (2005). Heteronormativity in action: Reproducing the heterosexual nuclear family in after-hours medical calls. Social Problems, 52, 477–498. doi:10.1525/sp.2005.52.4.477
  • Knight, K. (1999). Liberalism and conservatism. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of political attitudes (pp. 59–158). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • Kulik, L. (2010). Examination of gender role attitudes among spouses: A comparative analysis. Megamot, 47(1), 81–102.
  • Lahad, K. (2013). “Am I asking for too much?” The selective single woman as a new social problem. Women’s Studies International Forum, 40, 23–32. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2013.04.009
  • Leaper, C., & Van, S. R. (2008). Masculinity ideology, covert sexism, and perceived gender typicality in relation to young men’s academic motivation and choices in college. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(3), 139–153. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.9.3.139
  • Lemaster, P., Strough, J., Stoiko, R., & DiDonato, L. (2015). To have and to do: Masculine facets of gender predict men’s and women’s attitudes about gender equality among college students. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(2), 195–205. doi:10.1037/a0036429
  • Levtov, R. G., Barker, G., Contreras-Urbina, M., Heilman, B., & Verma, R. (2014). Pathways to gender-equitable men: Findings from the international men and gender equality survey in eight countries. Men and Masculinities, 17(5), 467–501. doi:10.1177/1097184X14558234
  • Luke, M., & Goodrich, K. M. (2015). Working with family, friends, and allies of LGBT youth. Journal for Social Action in Counseling & Psychology, 7(1), 63–83.
  • Mahalik, J. R., Locke, B. D., Ludlow, L. H., Diemer, M. A., Scott, R. P. J., Gottfried, M., & Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the conformity to masculine norms inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4(1), 3–25. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.4.1.3
  • Mange, J., & Lepastourel, N. (2013). Gender effect and prejudice: When a salient female norm moderates male negative attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(7), 1035–1053. doi:10.1080/00918369.2012.724632
  • Massey, S. G. (2009). Polymorphous prejudice: Liberating the measurement of heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 56(2), 147–172. doi:10.1080/00918360802623131
  • Montgomery, S. A., & Stewart, A. J. (2012). Privileged allies in lesbian and gay rights activism: Gender, generation, and resistance to heteronormativity. Journal of Social Issues, 68(1), 162–177. doi:10.1111/josi.2011.68.issue-1
  • Moradi, B., & Parent, M. C. (2013). Assessment of gender-related traits, attitudes, roles, norms, identity, and experiences. In K. F. Gelsinger (Ed.), APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 467–488). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • Morera, O. F., & Wiebe, J. S. (2015). Assessing the gender invariance of the modern homonegativity scale. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(11), 1539–1559. doi:10.1080/00918369.2015.1073034
  • Nixon, D. (2010). Discrimination, performance and recuperation: How teachers and pupils challenge and recover discourses of sexualities in schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(2), 145–151. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.05.003
  • O’Reilly, K., & Webster, G. R. (1998). A sociodemographic and partisan analysis of voting in three anti-gay rights referenda in Oregon. The Professional Geographer, 50(4), 498–515. doi:10.1111/0033-0124.00135
  • Patrick, K., Heywood, W., Simpson, J. M., Pitts, M. K, Richters, J., Shelley, J. M., & Smith, A.M. (2013). Demographic predictors of consistency and change in heterosexuals' attitudes toward homosexual behavior over a two-year period. The Journal of Sex Research, 50(6), 611–619. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2012.657263
  • Perry, S. L., & Snawder, K. J. (2016). Longitudinal effects of religious media on opposition to same-sex marriage. Sexuality & Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 20(4), 785–804. doi:10.1007/s12119-016-9357-y
  • Pettigrew, T. F., Tropp, L. R., Wagner, U., & Christ, O. (2011). Recent advances in intergroup contact theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(3), 271–280. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001
  • Poteat, V. P. (2015). Individual psychological factors and complex interpersonal conditions that predict LGBT-affirming behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(8), 1494–1507. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0257-5
  • Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741–763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741
  • Ratcliff, J. J., Lassiter, G. D., Markman, K. D., & Snyder, C. J. (2006). Gender differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: The role of motivation to respond without prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1325–1338. doi:10.1177/0146167206290213
  • Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 5(4), 631–660. doi:10.1086/493756
  • Sanchez, D. T., Fetterolf, J. C., & Rudman, L. A. (2012). Eroticizing inequality in the United States: The consequences and determinants of traditional gender role adherence in intimate relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 168–183. doi:10.1080/00224499.2011.653699
  • Schaub, J., Willis, P., & Dunk-West, P. (2016). Accounting for self, sex and sexuality in UK social workers’ knowledge base: Findings from an exploratory study. British Journal of Social Work, 47(2), 427–446.
  • Schilt, K., & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing gender, doing heteronormativity: “Gender normals,” transgender people, and the social maintenance of heterosexuality. Gender & Society, 23(4), 440–464. doi:10.1177/0891243209340034
  • Shields, S. A., Zawadzki, M. J., & Johnson, R. N. (2011). The impact of the Workshop Activity for Gender Equity Simulation in the Academy (WAGES–Academic) in demonstrating cumulative effects of gender bias. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4(2), 120–129. doi:10.1037/a0022953
  • Sobiraj, S., Rigotti, T., Weseler, D., & Mohr, G. (2015). Masculinity ideology and psychological strain: Considering men’s social stressors in female-dominated occupations. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 16(1), 54–66. doi:10.1037/a0035706
  • Spence, J. T. (2011). Off with the old, on with the new. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 504–509. doi:10.1177/0361684311414826
  • Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. E. (2000). Instrumental and expressive traits, trait stereotypes, and sexist attitudes. What do they signify? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(1), 44–62. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01021.x
  • Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity & femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, & antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
  • Suter, E. A., & Daas, K. L. (2007). Negotiating heteronormativity dialectically: Lesbian couples’ display of symbols in culture. Western Journal of Communication, 71(3), 177–195. doi:10.1080/10570310701518443
  • Takács, J., Szalma, I., & Bartus, T. (2016). Social attitudes toward adoption by same-sex couples in Europe. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(7), 1787–1798. doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0691-9
  • Twenge, J. M. (1999). Mapping gender: The multifactorial approach and the organization of gender-related attributes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23(3), 485–502. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00377.x
  • Vaccaro, A. (2010). What lies beneath seemingly positive campus climate results: Institutional sexism, racism, and male hostility toward equity initiatives and liberal bias. Equity & Excellence in Education, 43(2), 202–215. doi:10.1080/10665680903520231
  • Wade, J. C., & Brittan-Powell, C. (2001). Men’s attitudes toward race and gender equity: The importance of masculinity ideology, gender-related traits, and reference group identity dependence. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 2(1), 42–50. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.2.1.42
  • Ward, J., & Schneider, B. (2009). The reaches of heteronormativity: An introduction. Gender & Society, 23(4), 433–439. doi:10.1177/0891243209340903
  • West, K., & Cowell, N. M. (2014). Predictors of prejudice against lesbians and gay men in Jamaica. Journal of Sex Research, 52(2), 1–10.
  • Whitley, B. E. J. (1999). Right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 126–134. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.126
  • Yep, G. A. (2003). The violence of heteronormativity in communication studies: Notes on injury, healing, and queer world-making. Journal of Homosexuality, 45(2–4), 11–59. doi:10.1300/J082v45n02_02

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.