322
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

“I Don’t Think the Police Think We’re Human”: Legal Socialization Among Young Transgender Women

, PhD, MSWORCID Icon

References

  • Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.
  • American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) of Illinois. (2015). Stop and frisk in Chicago. https://www.aclu-il.org/sites/default/files/wpcontent/uploads/2015/03/ACLU_StopandFrisk_6.pdf
  • Anderson, L. A., O’Brien Caughy, M., & Owen, M. T. (2021). “The talk” and parenting while Black in America: Centering race, resistance, and refuge. The Journal of Black Psychology, 48(3–4), 475–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984211034294
  • Beauchamp, T. (2019). Going stealth. Duke University Press.
  • Beck, A., Cantor, D., Hartge, J., & Smith, T. (2013). Sexual victimization in juvenile facilities reported by youth. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/svjfry12.pdf
  • Brunson, R. K., & Wade, B. A. (2019). “Oh hell no, we don’t talk to police” insights on the lack of cooperation in police investigations of urban gun violence. Criminology & Public Policy, 18(3), 623–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12448
  • Brunson, R. K., & Weitzer, R. (2009). Police relations with black and white youths in different urban neighborhoods. Urban Affairs Review, 44(6), 601–647. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087408326973
  • Burgess, C. (1999). Internal and external stress factors associated with the identity development of transgendered youth. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 10(3–4), 35–47.
  • Buzan, T. (1974). Use of your head. BBC.
  • Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (2000). The mind map book. BBC Books.
  • Carr, P. J., Napolitano, L., & Keating, J. (2007). We never call the cops and here is why: A qualitative examination of legal synicism in three Philadelphia neighborhoods. Criminology, 45(2), 445–480. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00084.x
  • Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage.
  • Cullors, P., & Bandele, A. (2018). When they call you a terrorist: A black lives matter memoir. St. Martin’s Press.
  • Dario, L. M., Fradella, H. F., Verhagen, M., & Parry, M. M. (2020). Assessing LGBT people’s perceptions of police legitimacy. Journal of Homosexuality, 67(7), 885–915. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1560127
  • Davis, A. Y. (2011). Are prisons obsolete? Seven Stories Press.
  • Dwyer, A. (2011). Policing lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender young people: A gap in the research literature. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 22(3), 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2011.12035896
  • Fagan, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2005). Legal socialization of children and adolescents. Social Justice Research, 18(3), 217–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-6823-3
  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2019). Crime in the United States, 2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/topic-pages/persons-arrested
  • Freedman, D., Thornton, A., Camburn, D., Alwin, D., & Young DeMarco, L. (1988). The life history calendar: A technique for collecting retrospective data. Sociological Methodology, 18, 37–68. https://doi.org/10.2307/271044
  • Garofalo, R., Kuhns, L. M., Reisner, S. L., Biello, K., & Mimiaga, M. J. (2018). Efficacy of an empowerment-based, group-delivered HIV prevention intervention for young transgender women: The project LifeSkills randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(10), 916–923. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1799
  • Garthe, R. C., Hidalgo, M. A., Hereth, J., Garofalo, R., Reisner, S. L., Mimiaga, M. J., & Kuhns, L. (2018). Prevalence and risk correlates of intimate partner violence among a multisite cohort of young transgender women. LGBT Health, 5(6), 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2018.0034
  • Gau, J. M., & Brunson, R. K. (2010). Procedural justice and order maintenance policing: A Study of inner-city young men’s perceptions of police legitimacy. Justice Quarterly, 27(2), 255–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902763889
  • Gillespie, W. (2008). Thirty-five years after Stonewall: An exploratory study of satisfaction with police among gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons at the 34th annual Atlanta pride festival. Journal of Homosexuality, 55(4), 619–647. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360802421759
  • Grant, J. M., Mottet, L., Tanis, J., Harrison, J., Herman, J. L., & Keisling, M. (2011). Injustice at every turn: A report of the national transgender discrimination survey.
  • Grbich, C. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529799606
  • Harris, D. A., & Parisi, D. M. (2007). Adapting life history calendars for qualitative research on welfare transitions. Field Methods, 19(1), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X06292707
  • Hereth, J. (2021). ‘Where is the safe haven?’: Transgender women’s experiences of victimization and help-seeking across the life course. Feminist Criminology, 16(4), 461–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/15570851211010951
  • Hogan, R., & Mills, C. (1976). Legal socialization. Human Development, 19(5), 261–276. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271533
  • Human Rights Campaign. (2019). A national epidemic: Fatal anti-transgender violence in the United States in 2019. https://www.hrc.org/resources/a-national-epidemic-fatal-anti-trans-violence-in-the-united-states-in-2019
  • Irvine, A., & Canfield, A. (2015). The overrepresentation of lesbian, gay, bisexual, questioning, gender nonconforming and transgender youth within the child welfare to juvenile justice crossover population. Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 24(2), 243–262.
  • James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The report of the 2015 U.S. transgender survey.
  • Kaba, M., & Ritchie, A. J. (2023). No more police: A case for abolition. The New Press.
  • Kirk, D. S., & Matsuda, M. (2011). Legal cynicism, collective efficacy, and the ecology of arrest. Criminology, 49(2), 443–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00226.x
  • Kohler-Hausmann, I. (2013). Misdemeanor justice: Control without conviction. American Journal of Sociology, 119(2), 351–393. https://doi.org/10.1086/674743
  • Kubrin, C. E., Messner, S. F., Deane, G., McGeever, K., & Stucky, T. D. (2010). Proactive policing and robbery rates across US cities. Criminology, 48(1), 57–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00180.x
  • Lambda Legal. (2015). Protected and served?: The executive summary of Lambda legal’s national survey that explores discrimination by police, courts, prisons and school security against lebian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) people and people living with HIV in the United States. https://www.lambdalegal.org/sites/default/files/publications/downloads/ps_executive-summary.pdf
  • Lipperman‐Kreda, S., Wilson, I., Hunt, G. P., Annechino, R., & Antin, T. M. (2020). Substance use among sexual and gender minorities: Association with police discrimination and police mistrust. Sexuality, Gender & Policy, 3(2), 92–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/sgp2.12019
  • Lydon, J., Carrington, K., Low, H., Miller, R., & Yazdy, M. (2015). Coming out of concrete closets: A report on Black & Pink’s National LGBTQ prisoner survey. https://www.blackandpink.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Coming-Out-of-Concrete-Closets-incorcporated-Executive-summary102115.pdf
  • Make the Road New York. (2012). Transgressive policing: Police abuse of LGBTQ communities of color in Jackson Heights. http://maketheroadny.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/MRNY_Transgressive_Policing_Full_Report_10.23.12B.pdf
  • Mogul, J. L., Ritchie, A. J., & Whitlock, K. (2011). Queer (in)justice: The criminalization of LGBT people in the United States. Beacon Press.
  • Nadal, K. L., Quintanilla, A., Goswick, A., & Sriken, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people’s perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 27(4), 457–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2015.1085116
  • Nelson, I. A. (2010). From quantitative to qualitative: Adapting the life history calendar method. Field Methods, 22(4), 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X10379793
  • Owen, S. S., Burke, T. W., Few Demo, A. L., & Natwick, J. (2018). Perceptions of the police by LGBT communities. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(3), 668–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9420-8
  • Peitzmeier, S. M., Malik, M., Kattari, S. K., Marrow, E., Stephenson, R., Agenor, M., & Reisner, S. L. (2020). Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 100(9), e1–e14. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305774
  • Piquero, A. R., Fagan, J., Mulvey, E. P., Steinberg, L., & Odgers, C. (2005). Developmental trajectories of legal socialization among serious adolescent offenders. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 96(1), 267–298.
  • Pryce, D. K., & Chenane, J. L. (2021). Trust and confidence in police officers and the institution of policing: The views of African Americans in the American South. Crime & Delinquency, 67(6–7), 808–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128721991823
  • Reisner, S. L., Bailey, Z., & Sevelius, J. (2014). Racial/Ethnic disparities in history of incarceration, experiences of victimization, and associated health indicators among transgender women in the US. Women & Health, 54(8), 750–767. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2014.932891
  • Richie, B. E. (2012). Arrested justice. New York University Press.
  • Ritchie, A. J. (2017). Invisible no more: Police violence against Black women and Women of color. Beacon Press.
  • Saldana, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. SAGE.
  • Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (2005). A life-course view of the development of crime. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 602(1), 12–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716205280075
  • Schilt, K., & Westbrook, L. (2015). Bathroom battlegrounds and penis panics. Contexts, 14(3), 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536504215596943
  • Serpe, C. R., & Nadal, K. L. (2017). Perceptions of police: Experiences in the trans* community. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 29(3), 280–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2017.1319777
  • Spall, S. (1998). Peer debriefing in qualitative research: Emerging operational models. Qualitative Inquiry, 4(2), 280–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/107780049800400208
  • Stanley, E. (2011). Fugitive flesh: Gender self-determination, queer abolition, and trans resistance. In E. Stanley & N. Smith (Eds.), Captive genders: Trans embodiment and the prison industrial complex (pp. 7–17). AK Press.
  • Stewart, E. J., & Draper, D. (2009). Reporting back research findings: A case study of community-based tourism research in northern Canada. Journal of Ecotourism, 8(2), 128–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724040802696023
  • Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge University Press.
  • Stuart, F. (2015). On the streets, under arrest: Policing homelessness in the 21st century. Sociology Compass, 9(11), 940–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12324
  • Tapp, J. L., & Levine, F. J. (1974). Legal socialization: Strategies for an ethical legality. Standford Law Review, 27(1), 1–72. https://doi.org/10.2307/1227929
  • Taylor, K. (2016). From #Blacklivesmatter to Black liberation. Haymarket Books.
  • Thomas, D. R. (2017). Feedback from research participants: Are member checks useful in qualitative research? Qualitative Research in Psychology, 14(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2016.1219435
  • Tyler, T. R., Fagan, J., & Geller, A. (2014). Street stops and police legitimacy: Teachable moments in young urban men’s legal socialization. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 11(4), 751–785. https://doi.org/10.1111/jels.12055
  • Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts. Russel-Sage.
  • Watson, L. C., & Watson-Franke, M. B. (1985). Interpreting life histories: An anthropological inquiry. Rutgers University Press.
  • Weiss, R. (1994). Learning from strangers. Free Press.
  • Wheeldon, J., & Faubert, J. (2009). Framing experience: Concept maps, mind maps, and data collection in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(3), 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690900800307
  • Williams, M. L., & Tregidga, J. (2013). All Wales hate crime research project.
  • Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 249(3), 29–38.
  • Wolfe, S. E., McLean, K., & Pratt, T. C. (2016). I learned it by watching you: Legal socialization and the intergenerational transmission of legitimacy attitudes. British Journal of Criminology, 57(5), 1123–1143. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw038
  • Yarbrough, D. (2023). The carceral production of transgender poverty: How racialized gender policing deprives transgender women of housing and safety. Punishment & Society, 25(1), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/14624745211017818

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.