Neuromodulation with percutaneous electrical nerve field stimulation is associated with reduction in signs and symptoms of opioid withdrawal: a multisite, retrospective assessment

References

• UNODC, World Drug Report 2012. Available at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2012.html.
   Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. 2014. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUHresultsPDFWHTML2013/Web/NSDUHresults2013.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Arfken CL, Johanson CE, di Menza S, Schuster CR. Expanding treatment capacity for opioid dependence with office-based treatment with buprenorphine: national surveys of physicians. J Subst Abuse Treat 2010;39:96–104.
   Google Scholar
• Li X, Shorter D, Kosten TR. Buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid addiction: opportunities, challenges and strategies. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014;15:2263–2275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markowitz JD, Francis EM, Gonzales-Nolas C. Managing acute and chronic pain in a substance abuse treatment program for the addicted individual early in recovery: a current controversy. J Psychoactive Drugs 2010;42:193–198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parrino MW, Maremmani AG, Samuels PN, Maremmani I. Challenges and opportunities for the use of medications to treat opioid addiction in the United States and other nations of the world. J Addict Dis 2015;34:255–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amato, L, Davoli, M, Ferri, M, Gowing, L, Perucci, CA. Effectiveness of interventions on opiate withdrawal treatment: an overview of systematic reviews. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004; 73:219–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamali-Sarvestani F, Motiallah T, Ghaffarinejad F. The prevalence of musculoskeletal pain and forward head posture among heroin users during their withdrawal with methadone. Addict Health 2014;6:30–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gunderson EW, Sumner M. Efficacy of Buprenorphine/Naloxone Rapidly Dissolving sublingual Tablets (BNX-RDT) after switching from BNX sublingual film. J Addict Med 2016;10:122–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs P, Ang A, Hillhouse MP, Saxon AJ, Nielsen S, Wakim PG, Mai BE, Mooney LJ, S Potter J, Blaine JD. Treatment outcomes in opioid dependent patients with different buprenorphine/naloxone induction dosing patterns and trajectories. Am J Addict 2015;24:667–675.
   Google Scholar
• Ling W, Charuvastra C, Collins JF, Batki S, Brown LS Jr, Kintaudi P, Wesson DR, McNicholas L, Tusel DJ, Malkerneker U, Renner JA Jr, Santos E, Casadonte P, Fye C, Stine S, Wang RI, Segal D. Buprenorphine maintenance treatment of opiate dependence: a multicenter, randomized clinical trial. Addiction 1998;93:475–486.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oreskovich MR, Saxon AJ, Ellis ML, Malte CA, Reoux JP, Knox PC. A double-blind, double-dummy, randomized, prospective pilot study of the partial mu opiate agonist, buprenorphine, for acute detoxification from heroin. Drug Alcohol Depend 2005;77:71–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soyka M, Zingg C, Koller G, Kuefner H. Retention rate and substance use in methadone and buprenorphine maintenance therapy and predictors of outcome: results from a randomized study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008;11:641–653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umbricht A, Hoover DR, Tucker MJ, Leslie JM, Chaisson RE, Preston KL. Opioid detoxification with buprenorphine, clonidine, or methadone in hospitalized heroin-dependent patients with HIV infection. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003;69:263–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster L, Hjelmström P, Sumner M, Gunderson EW. Efficacy and safety of a sublingual buprenorphine/naloxone rapidly dissolving tablet for the treatment of adults with opioid dependence: a randomized trial. J Addict Dis 2016;7:1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Fiellin DA, O’Connor PG. Clinical practice. Office-based treatment of opioid-dependent patients. N Engl J Med 2002;347:817–823. Review.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchinson E, Catlin M, Andrilla CH, Baldwin LM, Rosenblatt RA. Barriers to primary care physicians prescribing buprenorphine. Ann Fam Med 2014;12:128–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishman M. Precipitated withdrawal during maintenance opioid blockade with extended release naltrexone. Addiction 2008;103:1399–1401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saloner B, Karthikeyan S. Changes in substance abuse treatment use among individuals with opioid use disorders in the United States, 2004–2013. JAMA 2015;314:1515–1517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frangos E, Ellrich J, Komisaruk BR. Non-invasive access to the vagus nerve central projections via electrical stimulation of the external ear: fMRI evidence in humans. Brain Stimul 2015;8:624–636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraus T, Kiess O, Hösl K, Terekhin P, Kornhuber J, Forster C. CNS BOLD fMRI effects of sham-controlled transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in the left outer auditory canal - a pilot study. Brain Stimul 2013;6:798–804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu LF, Lin JC, Clemenson A, Encisco E, Sun J, Hoang D, Alva H, Erlendson M, Clark JD, Younger JW. Acute opioid withdrawal is associated with increased neural activity in reward-processing centers in healthy men: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015;153:314–322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowing L, Farrell M, Ali R, White JM. Alpha₂-adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;5:CD002024.
   Google Scholar
• Koob GF. A role for brain stress systems in addiction. Neuron 2008;10:59:11–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob G, Kreek MJ. Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1149–1459. Review.
   Google Scholar
• Rossetti ZL, Hmaidan Y, Gessa GL. Marked inhibition of mesolimbic dopamine release: a common feature of ethanol, morphine, cocaine and amphetamine abstinence in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1992;221:227–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss F, Markou A, Lorang MT, Koob GF. Basal extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens are decreased during cocaine withdrawal after unlimited-access self-administration. Brain Res 1992;593:314–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contreras RJ, Beckstead RM, Norgren R. The central projections of the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves: an autoradiographic study in the rat. J Auton Nerv Syst 1982;6:303–322.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang LL, Ashwell KW. The development of cranial nerve and visceral afferents to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the rat. Anat Embryol (Berl) 2001;204:135–151.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ross CA, Ruggiero DA, Reis DJ. Projections from the nucleus tractus solitarii to the rostral ventrolateral medulla. J Comp Neurol 1985;242:511–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Kooy D, Koda LY, McGinty JF, Gerfen CR, Bloom FE. The organization of projections from the cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus to the nucleus of the solitary tract in rat. J Comp Neurol 1984;224:1–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neugebauer V, Li W, Bird GC, Han JS. The amygdala and persistent pain. Neuroscientist 2004;10:221–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Likhtik E, Popa D, Apergis-Schoute J, Fidacaro GA, Paré D. Amygdala intercalated neurons are required for expression of fear extinction. Nature 2008;454:642–645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob GF, Volkow ND. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010;35:217–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miranda A, Babygirija R. Neurostimulation with IBStim attenuates amygdala neurons and prevents post-inflammatory visceral and somatic hyperalgesia in rats. World Congress of pediatric gastroenterology, hepatology and nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2016;63 Suppl 2:S1–S415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesson DR, Ling W. The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). J Psychoactive Drugs 2003;35:253–259. Review.
   Google Scholar
• Ma D, Han JS, Diao QH, Deng GF, Ping XJ, Jin WJ, Wu LZ, Cui CL, Li XD. Transcutaneous electrical acupoint stimulation for the treatment of withdrawal syndrome in heroin addicts. Pain Med 2015;16:839–848.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts A, Sithole A, Sedghi M, Walker C, Quinn T. Minimal adverse effects profile following implantation of peri-auricular percutaneous electrical nerve field stimulators: a retrospective cohort study. Med devices 2016;9:389–393.
   Google Scholar
• Elman I, Borsook D. Common brain mechanisms of chronic pain and addiction. Neuron 2016;89:11–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs RA, See RE. Basolateral amygdala inactivation abolishes conditioned stimulus- and heroin-induced reinstatement of extinguished heroin-seeking behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology 2002;160:425–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris GC, Aston-Jones G. Activation in extended amygdala corresponds to altered hedonic processing during protracted morphine withdrawal. Behav Brain Res 2007;176:251–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa T, Yamamoto R, Fujio M, Suzuki Y, Minami M, Satoh M, Kaneko S. Involvement of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis activated by the central nucleus of the amygdala in the negative affective component of morphine withdrawal in rats. Neuroscience 2005;134:9–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouwette T, Vanelderen P, Roubos EW, Kozicz T, Vissers K. The amygdala, a relay station for switching on and off pain. Eur J Pain 2012;16:782–792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koob GF, Volkow ND. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010;35:217–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhuo M, Sengupta JN, Gebhart GF. Biphasic modulation of spinal visceral nociceptive transmission from the rostroventral medial medulla in the rat. J Neurophysiol 2002; 87:2225–2236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helmstetter FJ, Bellgowan PS, Tershner SA. Inhibition of the tail flick reflex following microinjection of morphine into the amygdala. Neuroreport 1993;4:471–474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning BH, Mayer DJ. The central nucleus of the amygdala contributes to the production of morphine antinociception in the formalin test. Pain 1995;63:141–152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen LW, Rao ZR, Shi JW. Catecholaminergic neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii which send their axons to the midbrain periaqueductal gray express Fos protein after noxious stimulation of the stomach: a triple labeling study in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1995;189:179–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross CA, Ruggiero DA, Reis DJ. Projections from the nucleus tractus solitarii to the rostral ventrolateral medulla. J Comp Neurol 1985;242:511–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lelevich SV, Lelevich VV, Novokshonov AA. Neurotransmitter mechanisms of morphine withdrawal syndrome. Bull Exp Biol Med 2009;148:184–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li SX, Shi J, Epstein DH, Wang X, Zhang XL, Bao YP, Zhang D, Zhang XY, Kosten TR, Lu L. Circadian alteration in neurobiology during 30 days of abstinence in heroin users. Biol Psychiatry 2009;65:905–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acquas E, Di Chiara G. Depression of mesolimbic dopamine transmission and sensitization to morphine during opiate abstinence. J Neurochem 1992;58:1620–1625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossetti ZL, Hmaidan Y, Gessa GL. Marked inhibition of mesolimbic dopamine release: a common feature of ethanol, morphine, cocaine and amphetamine abstinence in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1992;221:227–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tompkins DA, Bigelow GE, Harrison JA, Johnson RE, Fudala PJ, Strain EC. Concurrent validation of the Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS) and single-item indices against the Clinical Institute Narcotic Assessment (CINA) opioid withdrawal instrument. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009;105:154–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000. Public Law No. 106-310, Title XXXV–Waiver authority for physicians who dispense or prescribe certain narcotic drugs for maintenance treatment or detoxification treatment, 2000. Available at: http://www.buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/fulllaw.html [ last accessed 25 Jul 2016].
   Google Scholar
• Ducharme LJ, Abraham AJ. State policy influence on the early diffusion of buprenorphine in community treatment programs. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2008;3:17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knudsen HK, Lofwall MR, Havens JR, Walsh SL. States’ implementation of the Affordable Care Act and the supply of physicians waivered to prescribe buprenorphine for opioid dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend2015;157:36–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein BD, Gordon AJ, Dick AW, Burns RM, Pacula RL, Farmer CM, Leslie DL, Sorbero M. Supply of buprenorphine waivered physicians: the influence of state policies. J Subst Abuse Treat 2015;48:104–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenblatt RA, Andrilla CH, Catlin M, Larson EH. Geographic and specialty distribution of US physicians trained to treat opioid use disorder. Ann Fam Med 2015;13:23–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirchak KA, Murphy SM. Assessing differences in the availability of opioid addiction therapy options: rural versus urban and American Indian reservation versus nonreservation. J Rural Health 2017;33:102–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walley AY, Alperen JK, Cheng DM, Botticelli M, Castro-Donlan C, Samet JH, Alford DP. Office-based management of opioid dependence with buprenorphine: clinical practices and barriers. J Gen Intern Med 2008;23:1393–1398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcovitz DE, McHugh RK, Volpe J, Votaw V, Connery HS. Predictors of early dropout in outpatient buprenorphine/naloxone treatment. Am J Addict 2016 Sep;25(6):472–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torrington M, Domier CP, Hillhouse M, Ling W. Buprenorphine 101: treating opioid dependence with buprenorphine in an office-based setting. J Addict Dis 2007;26:93–99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar