Testing hair for fentanyl exposure: a method to inform harm reduction behavior among individuals who use heroin

References

• Jones CM, Einstein EB, Compton WM. Changes in synthetic opioid involvement in drug overdose deaths in the United States, 2010–2016. JAMA. 2018; 319(17):1819–21. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.2844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poklis A. Fentanyl: a review for clinical and analytical toxicologists. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1995;33:439–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki J, El-Haddad S. A review: fentanyl and non-pharmaceutical fentanyls. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2017;171:107–16. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.11.033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciccarone D, Ondocsin J, Mars SG. Heroin uncertainties: exploring users’ perceptions of fentanyl-adulterated and -substituted ‘heroin’. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;46:146–55. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.06.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones AA, Jang K, Panenka WJ, Barr AM, MacEwan GW, Thornton AE, Honer WG. Rapid change in fentanyl prevalence in a community-based, high-risk sample. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018; 75(3):298–300. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger MS, Yedinak JL, Buxton JA, Lysyshyn M, Bernstein E, Rich JD, Green TC, Hadland SE, Marshall BDL. High willingness to use rapid fentanyl test strips among young adults who use drugs. Harm Reduct J. 2018; 15(1):7. doi:10.1186/s12954-018-0213-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomberg American Health Initiative. Fentanyl overdose reduction checking analysis study. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration Diversion Control Division. NFLIS brief: fentanyl and fentanyl-related substances reported in NFLIS, 2015–2016. Springfeld, VA.: US Drug Enforcement Administration; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Moore PQ, Weber J, Cina S, Aks S. Syndrome surveillance of fentanyl-laced heroin outbreaks: utilization of EMS, Medical Examiner and Poison Center databases. Am J Emerg Med. 2017; 35(11):1706–08. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2017.05.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenney SR, Anderson BJ, Conti MT, Bailey GL, Stein MD. Expected and actual fentanyl exposure among persons seeking opioid withdrawal management. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2018;86:65–69. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2018.01.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macmadu A, Carroll JJ, Hadland SE, Green TC, Marshall BD. Prevalence and correlates of fentanyl-contaminated heroin exposure among young adults who use prescription opioids non-medically. Addict Behav. 2017;68:35–38. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.01.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park JN, Weir BW, Allen ST, Chaulk P, Sherman SG. Fentanyl-contaminated drugs and non-fatal overdose among people who inject drugs in Baltimore, MD. Harm Reduct J. 2018;15:34. doi:10.1186/s12954-018-0240-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll JJ, Marshall BDL, Rich JD, Green TC. Exposure to fentanyl-contaminated heroin and overdose risk among illicit opioid users in Rhode Island: a mixed methods study. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;46:136–45. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.05.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Acetyl fentanyl overdose fatalities – Rhode Island, March–May 2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:703–04.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griswold MK, Chai PR, Krotulski AJ, Friscia M, Chapman B, Boyer EW, Logan BK, Babu KM. Self-identification of nonpharmaceutical fentanyl exposure following heroin overdose. Clin Toxicol. 2018;56:37–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverstein JH, Rieders MF, McMullin M, Schulman S, Zahl K. An analysis of the duration of fentanyl and its metabolites in urine and saliva. Anesth Analg. 1993;76(3):618–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jj P, Salomone A, Vincenti M, Cm C. Detection of “bath salts” and other novel psychoactive substances in hair samples of ecstasy/MDMA/”Molly” users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;161:200–05. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.02.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palamar JJ, Salomone A, Gerace E, Di Corcia D, Vincenti M, Cleland CM. Hair testing to assess both known and unknown use of drugs amongst ecstasy users in the electronic dance music scene. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;48:91–98. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.07.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salomone A, Palamar JJ, Gerace E, Di Corcia D, Vincenti M. Hair testing for drugs of abuse and new psychoactive substances in a high-risk population. J Anal Toxicol. 2017; 41(5):376–81. doi:10.1093/jat/bkx020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salomone A, Palamar JJ, Bigiarini R, Gerace E, Di Corcia D, Vincenti M. Detection of fentanyl analogs and synthetic opioids in real hair samples. J Anal Toxicol. 2018. in press doi:10.1093/jat/bky093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mema SC, Sage C, Popoff S, Bridgeman J, Taylor D, Corneil T. Expanding harm reduction to include fentanyl urine testing: results from a pilot in rural British Columbia. Harm Reduct J. 2018;15:19. doi:10.1186/s12954-018-0224-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKnight C, Des Jarlais DC. Being “hooked up” during a sharp increase in the availability of illicitly manufactured fentanyl: adaptations of drug using practices among people who use drugs (PWUD) in New York City. Int J Drug Policy. 2018;60:82–88. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.08.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moody MT, Diaz S, Shah P, Papsun D, Logan BK. Analysis of fentanyl analogs and novel synthetic opioids in blood, serum/ plasma, and urine in forensic casework. Drug Test Anal. 2018; 10(9):1358–67. doi:10.1002/dta.2393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. 2017 Emerging Threat Report. 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Kintz P, Salomone A, Vincenti M. Hair analysis in clinical and forensic toxicology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Tupper W, McCrae K, Garber I, Lysyshyn M, Wood E. Initial results of a drug checking pilot program to detect fentanyl adulteration in a Canadian setting. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;190:242–45. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.06.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar