References
- Gostin LO, Hodge JG, Noe SA. Reframing the opioid epidemic as a national emergency. Jama. 2017;318:1539–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.13358.
- Fischer B, Pang M, Tyndall M. The opioid death crisis in Canada: crucial lessons for public health. Lancet Public Health. 2019;4:e81–e82. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30232-9.
- Kimber J, Hickman M, Strang J, Thomas K, Hutchinson S. Rising opioid-related deaths in England and Scotland must be recognised as a public health crisis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;6:639–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30209-3.
- Hedegaard H, Warner M, Miniño AM. Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 1999–2015. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2017.
- National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA). Opioid summaries by State. https://www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/opioids/opioid-summaries-by-state. Accessed November 30, 2020.
- Walker A. Tired of stepping over needles near school, students say enough. Boston Globe. https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2018/12/18/fed-with-stepping-over-needles-walk-school-students-stage-protest/CojNHiqhDvV3qQGyIfdx7N/story.html. Accessed November 30, 2020.
- Heslam J. Orchard Gardens schoolkids, parents frustrated by needle threat from Methadone Mile’s addicts. Boston Herald. https://www.bostonherald.com/2019/08/08/orchard-gardens-schoolkids-parents-frustrated-by-needle-threat-from-methadone-miles-addicts/ . Accessed November 30, 2020.
- Valencia M. Boston picks up 14,000 discarded needles each week. Boston Globe. https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2019/09/04/the-city-picks-discarded-needles-each-week/G1Ue4UygRjOy3Kpgvk10mO/story.html. Accessed November 30, 2020.
- De Montigny L, Moudon AV, Leigh BC, Kim S-Y. A spatial analysis of the physical and social environmental correlates of discarded needles. Health Place. 2011;17:757–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.01.013.
- Green B, Griffiths E. Psychiatric consequences of needlestick injury. Occup Med (Chic Ill). 2013;63:183–88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqt006.
- Russell F, Nash M. A prospective study of children with community‐acquired needlestick injuries in Melbourne. J Paediatr Child Health. 2002;38:322–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1754.2002.t01-2-00859.x.
- Moore DL. Needle stick injuries in the community. Paediatr Child Health. 2018;23:532–38. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxy129.
- Kordy F, Petrich A, Read SE, Bitnun A. Childhood exposures to discarded needles and other objects potentially contaminated with blood-borne pathogens in Toronto, Canada. Paediatr Child Health. 2017;22:372–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxx110.
- Minkoff SL. NYC 311: a tract-level analysis of citizen–government contacting in New York City. Urban Aff Rev. 2016;52:211–46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087415577796.
- Wang L, Qian C, Kats P, Kontokosta C, Sobolevsky S. Structure of 311 service requests as a signature of urban location. PloS One. 2017;12:e0186314. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186314.
- Li Y, Hyder A, Southerland LT, Hammond G, Porr A, Miller HJ. 311 service requests as indicators of neighborhood distress and opioid use disorder. Sci Rep. 2020;10:1–11.
- Fozouni L, Khan S, Bearnot B. Spatiotemporal trends in discarded needle reports in San Francisco over a 10-year period, 2010-2019. Int J Drug Policy. 2020;87:103018. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103018.
- Bearnot B, Pearson JF, Rodriguez JA. Using publicly available data to understand the opioid overdose epidemic: geospatial distribution of discarded needles in Boston, Massachusetts. Am J Public Health. 2018;108:1355–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304583.
- Analyze Boston. 311 service requests. https://data.boston.gov/dataset/311-service-requests. Accessed March 1, 2020.
- Silverman BW. Density estimation for statistics and data analysis. Vol. 26. London, UK: CRC press; 1986.
- Nakaya T, Yano K. Visualising crime clusters in a space‐time cube: an exploratory data‐analysis approach using space‐time kernel density estimation and scan statistics. Trans GIS. 2010;14:223–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9671.2010.01194.x.
- Borruso G. Network density estimation: a GIS approach for analysing point patterns in a network space. Trans GIS. 2008;12:377–402. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9671.2008.01107.x.
- Berman M, Diggle P. Estimating weighted integrals of the second‐order intensity of a spatial point process. J R Stat Soc. 1989;51:81–92.
- Bithell J. Estimation of relative risk functions. Stat Med. 1991;10:1745–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780101112.
- Koo H, Lee M, Chun Y, Griffith DA. Space-time cluster detection with cross-space-time relative risk functions. Cartogr Geogr Inf Sci. 2020;47:67–78. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15230406.2019.1641149.
- Zhang Z, Chen D, Liu W, Racine JS, Ong S, Chen Y, Zhao G, Jiang Q, et al. Nonparametric evaluation of dynamic disease risk: a spatio-temporal kernel approach. PloS One. 2011;6:e17381.
- Kulldorff M, Heffernan R, Hartman J, Assunçao R, Mostashari F. A space–time permutation scan statistic for disease outbreak detection. Plos Med. 2005;2:e59. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020059.
- Mu L. Thiessen polygon. Elsevier, Oxford: International Encyclopedia of Human Geography; 2009.
- Longley PA, Goodchild M, Maguire D, Rhind D. Geographic information systems and science. Hoboken NJ: Wiley and Sons; 2011.
- Pittman AW. Managing methadone mile: dynamics of neighborhood change and social control in Boston’s south end. Boston MA: University of Massachusetts Boston; 2020.
- City of Boston. Safe needle and syringe disposal. https://www.boston.gov/departments/recovery-services/safe-needle-and-syringe-disposal. Accessed September 1, 2020.
- SafeNeedleDisposal. SafeNeedleDisposal. https://safeneedledisposal.org/. Accessed October 1, 2020.
- Ford A. Saving lives in the stacks: how libraries are handling the opioid crisis. Chicago, IL: American Library Association; https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2017/06/21/saving-lives-in-the-stacks/. Accessed October 30, 2020.
- Gavin C. Boston pharmacies will now have to provide sharps disposal, under law passed by city council. https://www.boston.com/news/policy/2020/10/23/boston-pharmacies-sharps-disposal-city-council-law. Accessed October 30, 2020.
- Rhodes T, Kimber J, Small W, Fitzgerald J, Kerr T, Hickman M, Holloway G, et al. Public injecting and the need for ‘safer environment interventions’ in the reduction of drug‐related harm. Addiction. 2006;101:1384–93.
- Hallas D, Klar RT, Baldyga JA, Rattner I, Waingortin R, Fletcher J. Traditional and nontraditional collaborations to improve population health using geospatial information systemw maps: analysis of the opioid crisis. J Pediatr Health Care. 2019;33:309–22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2018.10.006.