- Anonymous, “Use Ads to Help Teach Consumer, Rogers Advises,” Advertising Age, September 21:28, 1970.
- Willie Mae Rogers, Director of the Good Housekeeping Institute, advised businesses that to improve their images they must inform the consumer about deficient products.
- Barnlund, Dean C., Interpersonal Communication, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1968.
- A comprehensive text on principles of communication theory and models of interpersonal communication.
- Beik, Leland L., “Immediate Recall of TV Commercial Elements,” Journal of Advertising Research, 2(no. 3):13–18, 1962.
- Video events (picture and print) resulted in greater immediate recall than audio events (voice and sound) with shorter ads recalled more often than long ads, and attention-getting devices recalled more often than basic messages.
- Berelson, B., Janowitz, M. (eds.), Reader in Public Opinion and Communication, The Free Press, New York, 1953.
- An excellent collection of articles on mass communications by social scientists.
- Berlyne, D.E., “Laughter, Humor, and Play,” in Lindzey, C., Aronson, E. (eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Volume 3, Addison-Weseley, London, 1969, pp. 795–853.
- This article provides a review of leisure behavior and is accompanied by a complete bibliography.
- Bernbach, William, “Promises. Promises.” Public Relations Journal, October:42–43, 1970.
- Good advertising for a bad product or idea does not achieve worthwhile results.
- Blum, Eleanor, Reference Books in the Mass Media, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1969.
- An annotated list of 226 selected books dealing with the mass media covering book publishing, broadcasting, films, newspapers, magazines, advertising, public relations, general and background books, and addresses of publishers.
- Byor, T.V., “Can Sports Stars Help Your TV Spots? Nicklaus Succeeds, but Seaver Pops Up,” Advertising Age, September 21:48–50, 1970.
- Using a sports personality for promotion is to your advantage only when the personality brings authority as well as pretty face to advertising.
- Campbell, James H.; Helper, Hal W. (eds.), Dimensions in Communications, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California, 1966.
- A collection of readings focusing on persuasion.
- Cathcart, R. S., “An Experimental Study of the Relative Effectiveness of Four Methods of Presenting Evidence,” Speech Monographs, 22:227–233, 1955.
- For effective opinion change, a good speech is as necessary as sound evidence; the evidence must be incorporated into a smooth and coherent presentation in the speaker's own words.
- Cromwell, H., “The Persistence of the Effect of Argumentative Speeches,” Quarterly Journal of Speech, 41:154–158, 1955.
- After either negative or positive speeches, the opinion change persisting over a period of thirty days was proportional to the original amount of change.
- Cutlip, Scott M.; Center, Allen H., Effective Public Relations, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1964.
- This volume interprets public relations broadly to include the allied fields of communications and public opinion.
- Davis, K. R.; Webster, F.E., Jr., Sales Force Management, Ronald Press, New York, 1968.
- Chapter 3 gives, from the perspective of sales, the model of the communication process as source, communicator, message, receiver, response, and feedback.
- DeFleur, Melvin, Theories of Mass Communication, David McKay, New York, 1966.
- Chapter 8 describes theories of interpersonal and group interaction as they affect communications.
- Ellis, N.J., “Play and Its Theories Reexamined,” Parks and Recreation magazine, 6 (no. 8):51–55+, 1971.
- This article's succinct criticism of classical, contemporary, and modern theories of play behavior provides insights applicable to communication in leisure settings.
- Feather, N.T., “Cognitive Dissonance, Sensitivity, and Evaluation,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66 (no. 2); 157–163, 1963.
- Cognitive dissonance (the discomfort produced by a clash between an individual's beliefs and the information he receives) is more likely to influence a person's evaluation or interpretation of information than his interest in the information.
- Festinger, Leon, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Row and Peterson, Evanston, Illinois, 1957, 279 pages.
- Explores and develops the basic background for the theory of cognitive dissonance.
- Fiske, D.W.; Maddi, S.R., Functions of Varied Experience, The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois, 1961.
- This book considers the functions that curiosity and varied experience serve in a person's development, interaction with the environment, and in man's affective experiences.
- Fosdick, James A.; Tannenbaum, Percy H., “The Encoder's Intent and Use of Stylistic Elements in Photographs,” Journalism Quarterly, 41:175–182, 1964.
- Different photographers were found to use the same techniques to convey specific connotative meanings.
- Greenberg, Allen; Garfinkle, Norton, “Delayed Recall of Magazine Articles,” Journal of Advertising Research, 2(no. 1):28–31, 1962.
- The effect of time upon recall of meaningful material was directly related to the degree of interest respondents initially showed in the material.
- Greenberg, Allen; Garfinkle, Norton, “Visual Material and Recall of Magazine Articles,” Journal of Advertising Research, 3(no. 2): 30–34, 1963.
- The greater the space devoted to visual material, the higher the level of readership and retention.
- Hovland, Carl I.; Janis, Irving L.; Kelley, Harold H., Communication and Persuasion, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1953.
- A general reference specifying the effects of a communication according to the nature of the communicator, the communication, and the audience.
- Hovland, C.I.; Mandell, W.; Luchins, A.S.; Cohen, A.R.; McGuire, W.J.;Janis, I.L.; Feierabend, R.L.; Anderson, N.H., The Order of Presentation in Persuasion, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1957.
- Contrary to earlier research by Lund, the first presentation was not always the most effective.
- Janis, I. L.; Hoveland, C.I., Personality and Persuasibility, Yale University Press, New haven, 1959.
- Regardless of the topic and communicator, some individuals are more susceptible to persuasion than others. Low self-esteem correlated with high persuasibility and high aggressiveness correlated with low persuasibility.
- Jones, E.E.; Kohler, R., “The Effects of Plausibility on the Learning of Controversial Statements,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 57:315–320, 1958.
- Supports the basic assumption that people tend to accept statements consistent with their attitudes and beliefs and tend to reject contrary statements.
- Kelley, H.H.; Woodruff, C.L., “Members' Reactions to Apparent Group Approval of a Counternorm Communication,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52:67–74, 1956.
- Individuals from a group were played a recorded speech advocating norms contrary to those accepted by the group. Compared with members told that an anonymous audience was applauding, members who were told that their own group was applauding showed (1) greater opinion change in the direction advocated by the speaker and (2) greater tendency to perceive the speaker's viewpoint as similar to group norms.
- Kelman, H.C., “Compliance, Identification, and Internalization: Three Processes of Attitude Change,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2:51–60, 1958.
- Showed that attitudes derived from compliance (with the communicator's power) tend to be expressed only under the surveillance of the communicator; attitudes derived from identification (with the communicator's attractiveness) tend to be expressed only when the communicator has a meaningful relationship to the subject; attitudes derived from internalization (acceptance of the communicator's credibility) tend to be expressed only when the issue is relevant, regardless of surveillance or relationship to the communicator.
- Klapper, Joseph T., The Effects of Mass Communication, The Free Press, New York, 1960.
- An analysis of research on the effectiveness and limitations of the mass media in influencing audience opinions, values, and behavior.
- Lund, F.H., “The Psychology of Belief, IV,” The Law of Primacy in Persuasion,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 20:183–191, 1925.
- The side of an issue presented first will have greater effectiveness than the side presented subsequently.
- McGinnis, E.; Altman, I., “Discussion as a Function of Attitudes and Content of a Persuasive Communication,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 43:53–59, 1959.
- Indicates that people agreeing with a communication will discuss it more readily than people who are neutral or disagree.
- Maccoby, E. E.; Maccoby, N.;Romney, A.K.; Adams, J.S., “Social Reinforcement in Attitude Change,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(no. 1):109–115, 1961.
- Showed the major effect of conversations after a persuasive communication was not to produce additional or delayed opinion change but to prevent backsliding by respondents initially influenced.
- Man, Melvin, “The Interpretation of Opinion Statements as a Function of Message Ambiguity and Recipient Attitude,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(no. l):76–81, 1961.
- A study of message ambiguity and its interpretation by recipients.
- Mills, J.; Aronson, E.; Robinson, H., “Selectivity in Exposure to Information,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59:250–253, 1959.
- Supports the theory that people tend to seek out information supporting their choices and to avoid discrepant information.
- Mills, Judson; Ross, Abraham, “Effects of Commitment and Certainty Upon Interest in Supporting Information,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68(no. 5):552–555, 1964.
- Among highly committed students the less their certainty, the greater their interest in supporting information. For the low commitment students, the greater their certainty the greater their interest in the supporting information.
- Pastore, N.; Horowitz, M.W., “The Influence of Attributed Motive on the Acceptance of a Statement,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51:331–332, 1955.
- A statement judged to have a good motive is more likely to be accepted than a statement not so judged.
- Peterson, Ruth C.; Thurstone, L.L., Motion Pictures and the Social Attitudes of Children, Macmillan, New York, 1933, in Hovland, Carl I.; Janis, Irving L.; Kelley, Harold H., Communication and Persuasion, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1953.
- The effect of motion pictures on the attitudes of children persisted for a period of over two and one-half months.
- Sargent, Leslie, W., “Communicator Image and News Reception,” Journalism Quarterly, 42:35–42, 1965.
- Messages from communicators known to the audience were rated more accurate, sincere, responsible, and impartial than impersonal news sources.
- Schramm, Wilbur (ed.), The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1954.
- A collection of articles by social scientists telling how the communication process works.
- Schramm, Wilbur; Danielson, Wayne, “Anticipated Audience as Determinants of Recall,” The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 56(no. 2):282–283, 1958.
- Subjects remembered significantly more of an argument when it agreed with the supposed position of an anticipated audience.
- Schulman, Gary I.; Worrall, Chrysoula, “Salience, Source Credibility and Sleeper Effect,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 34(no. 3):371–382, 1970.
- The more unplanned the identification of the source appeared, the greater the “sleeper effect” (i.e., forgetting the source with the passage of time). No significant differences in the sleeper effect were noted between high and low credibility sources.
- Schultz, Duane P., “Time, Awareness, and Order of Presentation in Opinion Change,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 47(no. 4): 280–283, 1963.
- The attitudes of students unaware of the communicator's experimental intent were affected more by the most recent message than by the first message. Recency effect was minimized for students aware of the experimental intentions of the communicator. Familiarity with issues increased primacy effects.
- Sereno, Kenneth K.; Mortensen, C. David, Foundations of Communication Theory, Harper and Row, New York, 1970.
- A collection of articles and cases in communications theory.
- Tannenbaum, Percy H., “Initital Attitude Toward Source and Concept as Factors in Attitude Change through Communications,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 20(no. 2): 413–426, 1956.
- The more intense a person's initial attitude toward a source or concept, the less susceptible his attitude is to change.
- Tannenbaum, Percy H.; Lynch, Mervin, D., “Sensationalism: The Concept and Its Measurement,” Journalism Quarterly, 37(no. 3): 381–392, 1960.
- Students can differentiate between stories with varying degrees of sensationalism.
- Tannenbaum, Percy H.; Lynch, Mervin, D., “Sensationalism: Some Objective Message Correlates,” Journalism Quarterly, 39(no. 3): 317–323, 1962.
- The more readable passages, those with less punctuation and generally more comprehensiveness, were rated as being more sensational. The higher the ratio of adjectives and adverbs to nouns and verbs, the more sensational the message.
- Wales, M.; Rarich G.; Davis, Hal, “Message Exaggeration by the Receiver,” Journalism Quarterly, 40:339–342, 1963.
- More people exaggerate than minimize the messages they receive.
- Walster, Elaine; Festinger, Leon, “The Effectiveness of ‘Overheard’ Persuasive Communications,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65(no. 6):395–406, 1962.
- For an issue of concern to a listener, an “overheard” communication is especially effective in changing his opinion.
- Weiss, W., “Opinion Congruence with a Negative Source on One Issue as a Factor Influencing Agreement on Another Issue,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 54:180–186, 1957.
- Weiss found that college students who heard him praise academic freedom before talking on fluoridation were easier to win over than a similar audience given only the fluoridation address.
- Weiss, W.; Fine, B.J., “Opinion Change as a Function of Some Intrapersonal Attributes of the Communicatees,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51:246–253, 1955.
- Ss who were themselves high in aggressive needs and extrapunitiveness were the most influenced by a message advocating punitive handling of juvenile delinquents.
- Westley, Bruce H.; Severin, Weiner J., “Some Correlates of Media Credibility,” Journalism Quarterly, 41(no. 3):325–335, 1964.
- Men, urban dwellers, and individuals of high socio-economic status trusted newspapers more than TV. TV was trusted more than newspapers by women and rural dwellers.
- Whittacker, James, O., “Attitude Change and Communication-Attitude Discrepancy,” The Journal of Social Psychology, 65:141–147, 1965.
- Small discrepancies in attitudes between the communicator and the receiver result in minimal changes in the receiver's attitude, moderate discrepancies result in the greatest change, and very large discrepancies result in anywhere from small positive to large negative changes.
- Wilcox, Walter, “Numbers and the News: Graph, Table, or Text?” Journalism Quarterly, 41(no. 1):38–44, 1964.
- Graphs and/or tables are superior to text for achieving the understanding of news stories based primarily on statistics.
- Winthrop, H., “Effect of Personal Qualities on One-Way Communication,” Psychological Reports, 2:323–324, 1956.
- Recipients of a communication tended to agree with a well-liked speaker and disagree with a disliked one.
- Wright, John S.; Warner, Daniel S., Advertising, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966.
- The satisfaction of learned wants is of greater concern for most people than the satisfaction of biological needs.
- Zimbardo, Philip G., “Involvement and Communication Discrepancy as Determinants of Opinion Conformity,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60(no. 1):86–94, 1960.
- The greater the discrepancy between a person's original opinion and that of his friends, the more his opinion will change upon exposure to his friend's opinions.
- Zimbardo, Philip G.; Weisenberg, M.; Firestone, I.; Levy, B., “Communicator Effectiveness in Producing Public Conformity and Private Attitude Change,” Journal of Personality, 33(no. 2):233–255, 1965.
- Although public conformity is unrelated to communicator credibility, private attitudes are significantly influenced.
- Zimmerman, Claire; Bauer, Raymond A., “The Effects of an Audience Upon What is Remembered,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 20:238–248, 1956.
- When members of an audience agree with a communicator, they recall more of his speech than when they desagree with him.
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