391
Views
26
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

MANAGING HEALTH RISKS FROM DRINKING WATER--A REPORT TO THE WALKERTON INQUIRY

, , , , , & show all
Pages 1635-1823 | Published online: 07 Jan 2011

References

  • Allen , M. J. , Clancy , J. L. and Rice , E. W. 2000 . The plain, hard truth about pathogen monitoring . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 92 : 64 – 76 .
  • American Public Health Association . 1998 . Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater , 20th , Washington, DC : American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation .
  • Canada, Health Canada, Federal-Provincial-Territorial Working Groups, National Health Surveillance Network Working Group, Integration Design Team . 1999b . Proposal to develop a network for health surveillance in Canada , Ottawa : Health Canada .
  • Canada, Health Canada, Health Surveillance Working Group . 2001 . Canadian health infostructure health surveillance tactical plan. Summary of the Final Report to the Advisory Committee on Health Infostructure , Ottawa : Health Canada .
  • Canada, Health and Welfare Canada . 1984 . Health risk study. Phase II. National Survey , Ottawa : Health and Welfare Canada .
  • Canada, Health and Welfare Canada . 1990 . 1993 [update]. Health risk determination. The challenge of health protection , Ottawa : Health Protection Branch .
  • Canada, Health and Welfare Canada, Environmental Health Directorate . 1981 . Tap-water consumption in Canada , Ottawa : Health and Welfare Canada .
  • Crump , K. S. 1995 . Calculation of benchmark doses from continuous data . Risk Anal. , 15 : 79 – 89 .
  • Davis , L J. , Roberts , H. L. , Juranek , D. D. , Framm , S. R. and Soave , R. 1998 . A survey of risk factors for Cryptosporidiosis in New York City: Drinking water and other exposures . Epidemiol. Infect. , 121 : 357 – 367 .
  • Deere , D. and Davison , A. 1998 . Safe drinking water: Are food guidelines the answer? . Water , 25 : 2124
  • Dupont , H. 1995 . Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers . N. Eng. J. Med. , 332 : 855
  • Ontario, Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care. 2000. Health facts--Water safety: How to use water safely during a "boil water advisory" [online]. Cited 16 November 2001. www.gov.on.ca/health/ english/pub/foodsagfe/watersafety.html.
  • Duy , T. N. , Lam , P. K. S. , Shaw , G. R. and Connell , D. W. 2000 . Toxicology and risk assessment of freshwater cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins in water . Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 163 : 113 – 185 .
  • Edberg , S. C , Rice , E. W. , Karlin , R. J. and Alien , M. J. 1988 . National field evaluation of a defined substrate method for the simultaneous enumeration of total coliforms and Escherichia coli from drinking water: Comparison with the standard multiple tube fermentation method . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 54 : 1595 – 1601 . [Published erratum appears in Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 3197.]
  • Edberg , S. C. , Rice , E. W. , Karlin , R. J. and Alien , M. J. 2000 . Escherichia coli: The best biological drinking water indicator for public health protection . J. Appl. Microbiol. , 88 : 106S – 116S .
  • Eisenberg , J. N. , Seto , E. Y. W. , Olivieri , A. W. and Spear , R. C. 1996 . Quantifying water pathogen risk in an epidemiological framework . Risk Anal. , 16 : 549 – 563 .
  • Eisenberg , J. N. , Seto , E. Y. W. , Olivieri , A. W. and Spear , R. C. 1998 . An analysis of the Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis outbreak based on a dynamic model of the infection process . Epidemiol. Res. , 9 : 255 – 263 .
  • Havelaar , A. H. , Hollander , A. , Teunis , P. , Evers , E. G. , Kranen , H. , Versteegh , J. , Koten , J. and Slob , W. 2000 . Balancing the risks and benefits of drinking water disinfection: disability adjusted life-years on the scale . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 315 – 321 .
  • Hellard , M. E. , Sinclair , M. I. , Forbes , A. B. and Fairley , C. K. 2001 . A randomized blinded controlled trial investigating the gastro-intestinal health affects of drinking water quality . Environ. Health Perspect. , 109 : 773 – 778 .
  • Hendee , W. R. 1991 . Personal and public perceptions of radiation risks . Radiographies , 11 : 1109 – 1119 .
  • Heun , E. M. , Vogt , R. L , Hudson , P. J. , Parren , S. and Gary , G. W. 1987 . Risk factors for secondary transmission in households after a common source outbreak of Norwalk gastroenteritis . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 12 ( 6 ) : 1181 – 1186 .
  • Holcomb , D. L , Smith , M. A. , Ware , G. O. , Hung , Y. C. , Brackett , R. E. and Doyle , M. P. 1999 . Comparison of six dose-response models for use with food-borne athogens . Risk Anal. , 19 : 1091 – 1100 .
  • Morris , R. D. , Naumova , E. N. and Griffiths , J. K. 1998 . Did Milwaukee experience water-borne Cryptosporidiosis before the large documented outbreak in 1993? . Epidemiology , 9 : 264 – 270 .
  • Canada, Health and Welfare Canada, Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Drinking Water . 1987 . Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality , Ottawa : Supply and Services .
  • Canada, Health and Welfare Canada, Federal, Provincial and Territorial Advisory Committee on Population Health . 1994 . Strategies for population health. Investing in the health of Canadians. Cat. no. H39-316/1994 , Ottawa : Supply and Services Canada .
  • Canada, Health and Welfare Canada, Federal-Provincial Working Group on Drinking Water . 1979 . Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality--1978 , Ottawa : Minister of Supply and Services, Canadian Government Publishing Centre, Supply and Services Canada .
  • Regli , S. , Rose , J. B. , Haas , C. N. and Gerba , C. P. 1991 . Modelling risk from Giardia and viruses in drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 83 : 76 – 84 .
  • Rose , J. B. 1990 . “ Pathogens in water: Overview of methods, application limitations and data interpretation ” . In Methods for the investigation and prevention of waterbome disease outbreaks , Edited by: Craun , G. F. 223 – 234 . Cincinnati, OH : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory .
  • American Water Works Association . 1999 . Water quality and treatment , 5th , New York : McGrawHiII .
  • Aspinwall , L. G. 1999 . Persuasion for the purpose of cancer risk reduction: Understanding responses to risk communication . J. Natl. Cancer lnst. Monogr. , 25 : 88 – 93 .
  • Rose , J. B. and Grimes , D. J. 2001 . Reevaluation of microbial water quality: Powerful new tools for detection and risk assessment , Washington, DC : American Academy of Microbiology .
  • Rothman , A. J. and Kiviniemi , M. T. 1999 . Treating people with information: An analysis and review of approaches to communicating health risk information . JNCI Monogr. , 25 : 44 – 51 .
  • Australia. National Health and Medical Research Council/Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand. 1996. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines [online]. [Cited 19 November 2001.] www.health.gov.au/nhmrc/publications/pdffeh19.pdf; www.health.gov.au/ nhmrc/publications/pdf/eh 19.pdf.
  • Balbus , J. , Parkin , R. and Embrey , M. 2000 . Susceptibility in microbial risk assessment: Definitions and research needs . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 901 – 905 .
  • Baron , R. C. 1982 . Norwalk gastrointestinal illness: An outbreak associated with swimming in a recreational lake and secondary person-to-person transmission . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 115 : 163 – 172 .
  • Bennett , P. and Caiman , K. 2000 . Risk communication and public health , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
  • Bowie , W. B. , King , A. S. , Werker , D. H. , Isaac-Renton , J. L. , Bell , A. and Marion , S. A. 1997 . Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water . Lancet , 350 : 173 – 177 .
  • British Columbia, Office of the Auditor General . 1998/1999 . Protecting drinking-water sources. Report 5 , Victoria, BC : Queen's Printer .
  • Canada, Canadian Public Health Association . 1993 . Benefit, risk and cost management: Report of the CPHA National Advisory Panel on Risk/Benefit Management of Drugs , Ottawa : Canadian Public Health Association .
  • Canada, Canadian Standards Association . 1991 . Risk analysis requirements and guidelines: Quality management--National standard of Canada. CAN/CSA-Q634-91 , Etobicoke, ON : Canadian Standards Association .
  • Canada, Canadian Standards Association . 1997 . Risk management: Guideline for decision-makers. CAN/CSA-Q850-97 , Etobicoke, ON : Canadian Standards Association .
  • Canada, Department of Health and Welfare . 1969 . Canadian drinking water standards and objectives: (1968) , Ottawa : Queen's Printer for Canada .
  • Canada, Environment Canada . 1981 . Public perceptions of water quality in the Great Lakes , Ottawa : Environment Canada .
  • Canada, Environment Canada . 1983 . Study of trends in Canadian environmental and water issues concerning Ontario and the Great Lakes Region , Ottawa : Environment Canada .
  • Canada, Health Canada. 1993. Food-borne and water-borne disease in Canada--Annual summaries: 1992 and 1993. Ottawa: Polyscience Publications, Inc., in cooperation with the Health Protection Branch of Health Canada and the Canada Communication Group Publishing Services, Public Works and Government Services.
  • Canada, Health Canada . 1995a . Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality--Supporting documentation. Part I. Approach to the derivation of drinking water guidelines , Ottawa : Environmental Health Directorate .
  • Canada, Health Canada . 1995b . A national survey of chlorination disinfection by-products in Canadian drinking water. Report 95-EHD-197 , Ottawa : Communications and Consultation Directorate .
  • Canada, Health Canada . 2000a . Health Canada decision-making framework for identifying, assessing, and managing health risks , Ottawa : Health Protection Branch .
  • Canada, Health Canada . 2000b . Risk/benefit perceptions of biotechnology products. Report prepared for Health Canada by Environics Research Group, July , Ottawa : Health Protection Branch .
  • Canada, Health Canada . 2001 . Guide for peer reviewers. January , Ottawa : Health Canada .
  • Rose , J. B. , Haas , C. N. and Regli , S. 1991a . Survey of potable water supplies for Cryptosporidium and Giardia . Environ. Sei. Technol. , 25 : 1393 – 1400 .
  • United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO), Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2001 a. Codex Alimentarius [online]. Cited 19 November 2001. www. codexalimentarius.net.
  • United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO). Joint Expert Consultation. 2001 b. Risk management and food safety. FAO Food Nutrition Papers. No. 65. Rome: FAO.
  • United Nations, World Health Organization (WHO) . 1993 . “ Guidelines for drinking water quality ” . In Recommendations , 2nd , Vol. 1 , Geneva : WHO .
  • United Nations, World Health Organization (WHO) . 1996 . “ Guidelines for drinking water quality ” . In Health criteria and other supporting documentation , 2nd , Vol. 2 , Geneva : WHO .
  • U.S. Centers for Disease Control. 1998 . Surveillance for water-borne disease outbreaks, 1995-96 . Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. , 47 : 1 – 34 .
  • U.S. Centers for Disease Control. 2000 . Water-borne disease outbreaks, 1997-98 . Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. , 47 : 1 – 35 .
  • U.S. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1994. Food-borne pathogens: Risks and consequences. Ames, IA: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Task Force Report No. 122.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 1992 . Research plan for microbial pathogens and disinfection by-products in drinking water. EPA/6001/R-97/22 , Washington, DC : U.S. EPA .
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Water quality standards handbook. 2nd ed. EPA 823-894-005a. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. National drinking water program redirection strategy. EPA document EPA 810-R-96-003 [online]. Cited 16 November 2001. www.epa.gov/OGWDW/docs/ toc.html.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2000. Stage 2 microbial and disinfection byproducts Federal Advisory Committee agreement in principle [online]. Cited 29 December. www.epa.gov/EPAWATER/2000/December/Day-29/w33306.htm.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Method 9223: Drinking water methods for microbiological parameters. Office for Water [online]. Cited 16 November. www.epa.gov/OGWDW/methods/ indmicro.html.
  • U.S. Institute of Medicine . 1992 . Emerging infections: Microbial threats to health in the United States , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • Rose , J. B. , Haas , C. N. and Regli , S. 1991b . Risk assessment and the control of water-borne giardiasis . Am. J. Public Health , 81 : 709 – 713 .
  • Canada, Krever Commission . 1997 . Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the Blood System in Canada , Ottawa : Public Works and Government Services .
  • Cassin , M. H. , Lammerding , A. M. , Todd , E. C. W. , Ross , W. and McCoII , R. S. 1998 . Quantitative risk assessment for Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef hamburgers . Int. J. Food Microbiol. , 41 : 21 – 44 .
  • Chappell , C. L , Okhuysen , P. C. , Sterling. , C. R. , Wang. , C. , Jakubowski , W. and DuPont , H. L . 1999 . Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy adults with pre-existing anti-C . parvum serum immunoglobulin G. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 60 : 157 – 164 .
  • Clancy , J. L. 2000 . Sydney's (1998) water quality crisis . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 92 : 55 – 66 .
  • Clancy , J. L. , Gollnitz , W. D. and Tabib , Z. 1994 . Commercial labs: how accurate are they? J . Am. Water Works Assoc. , 86 : 89 – 97 .
  • Clark , G. B. 1999 . Continuous quality improvement: Essential management approaches; Approved guideline , Vol. 19 , 13 Washington, DC : National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards .
  • Covello , V. T. and Merkhoter , M. W. 1994 . Risk assessment methods , New York : Plenum Press .
  • Craun , G. F. 1986 . “ Statistics of water-borne disease outbreaks in the U.S. (1920-1980) ” . In Waterborne diseases in the United States , Edited by: Craun , G. F. 73 – 159 . Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press .
  • Craun , G. F. , Berger , P. S. and Calderon , R. 1997 . Coliform bacteria and waterborne disease outbreaks . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 89 : 96 – 104 .
  • Crockett , C. , Haas , C. N. , Fazil , A. , Rose , J. B. and Gerba , C. P. 1996 . Prevalence of Shigellosis in the U.S.: Consistency with dose-response information . Int. J. Food Microbiol. , 30 : 87 – 100 .
  • El-Shaarawi , A. H. , Esterby , S. R. and Dutka , B. J. 1981 . Bacterial density in water determined by Poisson or negative binomial distributions . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 41 : 107 – 116 .
  • European Union. 1998. Drinking water directive. Council Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption. Adopted on November 3, 1998 [online]. Cited 19 November 2001. europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/lif/dat/ 1998/en_398L0083.html.
  • White , A. and Burton , I. 1980 . Environmental risk assessment , Chichester, England : John Wiley & Sons .
  • U.S. National Research Council . 1983 . Risk assessment in the federal government: Managing the process , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • Ong , C. S. L , Pearce , M. , Eisler , D. , Goh , S. H. , King , A. , Bowie , W. , Isaac-Renton , J. L. and Beard , C. B. 1997 . An outbreak of Cryptosporidiosis in Southeastern, B.C. (1999). Molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis outbreaks and transmission in British Columbia, Canada. . Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 61 : 63 – 69 .
  • Ongerth , J. E. 1989 . Giardia cyst concentrations in river water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , September : 81 – 86 .
  • Ontario, Ministry of the Environment . 1998 . Drinking water in Ontario. A summary report 1993-1997. Environmental Monitoring and Reporting Branch, Water Monitoring Section , Toronto : Queen's Printer for Ontario .
  • Ontario, Ministry of the Environment. 2000. Notice of decision for policy: EBR Registry No. PA9E0007 [online]. Cited 19 November 2001.204.40.253.254/envregistry/012023ep.htm.
  • lnteragency Staff Group on Carcinogenesis. , U.S. 1986 . Chemical carcinogens: A review of the science and its associated principles . Environ. Health Perspect. , 67 : 201 – 282 .
  • U.S. National Research Council . 1989 . Effective risk communication , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • U.S. National Research Council . 1994 . Science and judgment in risk assessment , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • U.S. National Research Council . 1996 . Understanding risk: Informing decisions in a democratic society , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • U.S. National Research Council . 2000 . Watershed management for potable water supply: Assessing the New York City strategy , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • U.S. National Research Council, Safe Drinking Water Committee . 1989 . Drinking water and health , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
  • Canada, Health Canada, Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Drinking Water . 1996a . Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality , 6th , Ottawa : Health Canada .
  • Canada, Health Canada, Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Drinking Water . 1996b . Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality--Supporting documentation. Tetrachloroethylene. Drafted October 1995 edited May 1996) , Ottawa : Health Canada .
  • Canada, Health Canada, Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Drinking Water . 1999a . Canadian drinking water guidelines development process. Annex 2 , Ottawa : Health Canada .
  • Regional Municipality of Waterloo. 2000. Engineering Report. E03-20/4876-01 :C06-60/EC/WSD.00, E00-81, August 23, 2000. Waterloo, ON [online]. Cited 19 November 2001. clerksweb.region. waterloo.on.ca/scripts/lpsiis.dll/CWAgendas/e-00-081.pdf.
  • U.S. Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management. 1997. Framework for environmental health risk management, Final report, vols. 1 and 2. Washington, DC.
  • Van Ryzin , J. 1980 . Quantitative risk assessment . J. Occup. Med. , 22 : 321 – 326 .
  • Vertinsky, I. B., and Wehrung, D. A. 1990. Risk perception and drug safety evaluation Health Canada. Cat no. H42-2/10-1990 [online]. Cited 16 November 2001. www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb-dgps/therpeut/ zfiles/english/publication/risk-per_e.htmI.
  • WaIlis , P. M. , Primrose , B. and Robertson , W. 1998 . Outbreak of waterborne Giardia caused by sewage contamination of drinking water . Environ. Health Rev. , 42 : 44 – 51 .
  • Wheeler , J. G. , Sethi , D. , Cowden , J. M. , Wall , P. G. , Rodrigues , L C. , Tompkins , D. S. , Hudson , M. J. and Roderick , P. J. 1999 . Study of infectious intestinal disease in England: Rates in the community, presenting to general practice, and reported to national surveillance . Br. Med. J. , 318 : 1046 – 1050 .
  • White , K. E. , Osterholm , M. T. , Mariotti , J. A. , Korlath , J. A. , Lawrence , D. H. , Ristinen , T. L and Greenberg , H. B. 1986 . A food-borne outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 124 : 120 – 126 .
  • Ontario, Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care. (1999a). Reported enteric disease outbreaks in Ontario, 1994 to 1998. Public health and epidemiology report Ontario (PHERO), Vol. 10, no. 8 [online]. Cited 27 August 1999. www.gov.on.ca/health/english/program/pubhealth/phero_199908.html
  • Ontario, Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care . 1999b . Public health and epidemiology report, Vol. 10, no. 8 (27 August) , Toronto : Queen's Printer for Ontario .
  • Parkin , R. T. and Balbus , J. M. 2000 . Variations in concepts of "susceptibility in risk assessment . Risk Anal. , 20 : 603 – 611 .
  • Padiglione , A. and Fairley , C. K. 1998 . Early detection of outbreaks of water-borne gastroenteritis . J. Austr. Water Assoc. , 25 : 11 – 15 .
  • Payment , P. , Siemiatycki , J. , Richardson , L. , Renaud , G. , Franco , E. and Prevost , M. 1991 . A randomized trial to evaluate the risk of gastro-intestinal disease due to consumption of drinking water meeting current microbiological standards . Am. J. Public Health , 81 : 703 – 708 .
  • Payment , P. , Siemiatycki , J. , Richardson , L. , Renaud , G. , Franco , E. and Prevost , M. 1997 . A prospective epidemiological study of gastro-intestinal health effects due to the consumption of drinking water . Int. J. Environ. Health Res. , 7 : 5 – 31 .
  • Sandman , P. M. and Weinstein , N. D. 1993 . Predictors of home radon testing and implications for testing promotion programs . Health Educ. Q. , 20 : 471 – 478 .
  • Schwartz , J. , Levin , R. and Hodge , K. 1997 . Drinking water turbidity and paediatric hospital use for gastrointestinal illness in Philadelphia . Epidemiology , 3 : 615 – 620 .
  • Schwartz , J. , Levin , R. and Hodge , K. 2000 . Drinking water turbidity and gastro-intestinal illness in elderly Philadelphia . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 54 : 5 – 51 .
  • Siegrist , M. and Cvetkovich , G. 2000 . Perception of hazards: The role of social trust and knowledge . Risk Anal. , 20 : 713 – 719 .
  • Silbergeld , E. K. 1993 . Risk assessment: The perspective and experience of United States environmentalists . Environ. Health Perspect. , 101 : 100 – 104 .
  • Sinton , L. W. , Donnison , A. M. and Hastie , C. M. 1993 . Faecal streptococci as faecal pollution indicators--A review. 2: Sanitary significance, survival and use . N. Z. J. Mar. Freshwater Res. , 27 : 191 – 197 .
  • Sjoberg , L. 1998 . Worry and risk perception . Risk Anal. , 18 : 85 – 93 .
  • Perz , J. F. , Ennever , F. K. and Le Blancq , S. M. 1998 . Cryptosporidium in tap water: Comparison of predicted risks and observed levels of disease . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 147 : 289 – 301 .
  • Pinto , B. , Pierotti , R. , Canale , G. and Reali , D. 1999 . Characterization of faecal streptococci as indicators of faecal pollution and distribution in the environment . Lett. Appl. Microbiol. , 29 : 258 – 263 .
  • Pipes , W. O. 1977 . Frequency distributions for coliform bacteria in water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 69 : 664
  • Fairley , C. K. 1999 . Monitoring not the answer to Cryptosporidium in water . Lancet , 354 : 967 – 969 .
  • Fayer , R. , Fischer , J. R. , Sewell , C. T. , Kavanaugh , D. M. and Osborn , D. A. 1996 . Spontaneous cryptosporidiosis in captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) . J. WiIdI. Dis. , 32 : 619 – 622 .
  • Fazil , A. M. 1996 . A quantitative risk assessment model for Salmonella , Philadelphia : Drexd University, Environmental Studies Institute .
  • Flanigan , T. P. , Whalen , C , Turner , J. , Soave , R. , Toerner , J. , Havlir , D. and Kotler , D. P. 1992 . Cryptosporidium infection and CD4 counts . Ann. Int. Med. , 116 : 840 – 842 .
  • Slovic , P. 1987 . Perception of risk . Science , 236 : 280 – 285 .
  • Slovic , P. , Malmfors. , T. , Krewski , D. , Mertz , C. K. , Neil , N. and Bartlett , S. 1995 . Intuitive toxicology II . Expert and lay judgments of chemical risks in Canada. Risk Anal. , 15 : 661 – 675 .
  • Sly , T. 2000 . The perceptions and communications of risk: A guide for the local health agency . Can. J. Public Health , 91 : 153 – 156 .
  • Sobsey , M. D. 1999 . “ Methods to identify and detect microbial contaminants in drinking water ” . In Identifying future drinking water contaminants, quantitative risk assessment for water-borne pathogens , Ottawa : National Research Council .
  • Sorenson , D. L , Eberl , S. G. and Diska , R. A. 1989 . Clostridium perfringens as a point source indicator in non-point polluted streams . Water Res. , 23 : 191 – 197 .
  • Spika , J. S. , Parsons , J. E. , Nordenburg , D. , Wells , J. G. , Gunn , R. A. and Blake , P. A. 1986 . Hemolytic uremie syndrome and diarrhea associated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a day care center . J. Pediatrics , 109 : 287 – 291 .
  • Foster , K. R. , Vecchia , P. and Repacholi , M. H. 2000 . Science and the precautionary principle . Science , 288 : 979 – 981 .
  • Frost , F. J. , Muller , T. , Calderon , R. L and Craun , G. F. 2000 . A serological survey of college students for antibody to Cryptosporidium before and after the introduction of a new water filtration plant . Epidemiol. Infect. , 125 : 87 – 92 .
  • Gale , P. , Dijk , P. A. H. and Stanfield , G. 1997 . Drinking water treatment increases micro-organism clustering: The implications for microbiological risk assessment . J. Water Supply Res. Technol.Aqua , 46 : 117 – 126 .
  • Gale , P. and Stanfield , G. 2000 . Cryptosporidium: Curing a simulated outbreak . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 92 : 105 – 116 .
  • Gerba , C. P. and Rose , J. B. 1990 . “ Viruses in source and drinking water ” . In Drinking water microbiology , Edited by: McFeters , G. A. 380 – 395 . New York : Springer-Verlag .
  • Gerba , C. P. , Rose , J. B. and Haas , C. N. 1996 . Sensitive populations: Who is at the greatest risk? Int . J. Food Microbiol. , 30 : 113 – 123 .
  • Gerrard , M. , Gibbons , F. X. and Reis-Bergan , M. 1999 . The effect of risk communication on risk perceptions: The significance of individual differences . JNCI Monogr. , 25 : 94 – 100 .
  • Goldstein , S. T. , Juranek , D. D. , Ravenholt , O. , Hightower , A. W. , Martin , D. G. , Mesnik , J. L , Griffiths , S. D. , Bryant , A. J. , Reich , R. R. and Herwaldt , B. L. 1996 . Cryptosporidiosis: An outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment . Ann. Int. Med. , 124 : 459 – 468 . [Published erratum appears in Ann. Int. Med. (1996),125:158.]
  • Gorbachev , M. 2000 . Out of water . CivilizationOctober/November , : 82 – 84 .
  • Gregory , J. 1994 . Cryptosporidium in water: Treatment and monitoring methods . Filtrat. Separat. , 31 : 283 – 289 .
  • Griffin , P. M. and Tauxe , R. V. 1991 . The epidemiology of infections caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7, other enterohemorrhagic E . coli and the associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Epidemiol. Rev. , 13 : 60 – 98 .
  • Haas , C. N. and Rose , J. B. 1994 . Reconciliation of microbial risk models and outbreak epidemiology: The case of the Milwaukee outbreak. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Water Works Association New York
  • Haas , C. N. , Crockett , C. S. , Rose , J. B. , Gerba , C. P. and Fazil , A. M. 1996 . Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 88 : 131 – 136 .
  • Haas , C. N. , Crockett , C. S. , Rose , J. B. , Gerba , C. P. and Fazil , A. M. 1999a . Quantitative microbial risk assessment , New York : John Wiley .
  • Haas , C. N. , Crockett , C. S. , Rose , J. B. , Gerba , C. P. and Fazil , A. M. 1999b . Development and validation of dose-response relationship for Listeria monocytogenes . Quant. Microbiol. , 1 : 89 – 102 .
  • Haas , C. N. , Crockett , C. S. , Rose , J. B. , Gerba , C. P. and Fazil , A. M. 2000 . Development of a doseresponse relationship for Escherichia coli O157:H7 . Int. J. Food Microbiol. , 56 : 153 – 159 .
  • Hattis , D. 1996 . Drawing the line: Quantitative criteria for risk management . Environment , 38 : 35 – 39 .
  • Havelaar , A. H. 1994 . Application of HACCP to drinking water supply . Food Control , 5 : 145 – 152 .
  • Pontius , F. 1999 . Negotiating regulations for micro-organisms and disinfection by-products . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 91 : 14 – 28 .
  • Pontius , F. 2000 . Environmental justice and drinking water regulations . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 92 : 14 – 20 .
  • Pontius , F. W. and Clancy , J. L . 1999 . ICR Crypto. data: Worthwhile or worthless? . J. Am. Water Works Assoc , 91 : 14 – 22 .
  • Pontius , F. W. and Clark , S. W. 1999 . “ Drinking water quality standards, regulations and goals ” . In American Water Works Association water quality and treatment , 1.4 – 1.6 . New York : McGrawHiII .
  • Oison , M. E. 1997a . Giardia and Cryptosporidium in dairy calves in British Columbia . Can. Vet. J. , 38 : 703 – 705 .
  • Olson , M. E. 1997b . Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Canadian farm animals . Vet. Parasitol. , 68 : 375383
  • Ong , C. S. L , Pearce , M. , Eisler , D. , Goh , S. H. , King , A. , Bowie , W. , Isaac-Renton , J. L. and Beard , C. B. 1997 . “ An outbreak of Cryptosporidiosis in Southeastern, B.C ” . In Proceedings of the 1997 International Symposium on Water-borne Cryptosporidium , Edited by: Fricker , C. R. , Clancy , J. L. and Rochelle , P. A. 355 – 366 . Denver, CO : American Water Works Association .
  • Pozio , E. , Rezza , G. , Boschini , A. , Pezzotti , P. , Tamburrini , A. , Rossi , P. , Di Fine , M. , Smacchia , C , Schiesari , A. , Gattei , E. , Zucconi , R. and Ballarini , P. 1997 . Clinical cryptosporidiosis and human immunodeficiency virus (HlV)-induced immunosuppression: Findings from a longitudinal study of HIV-positive and HIV-negative former injection drug users . J. Infect. Dis. , 176 : 969 – 975 .
  • Hrudey, S. 1999. Drinking water and health risks: Balancing risk and reason. In Balancing risks and reasons: Proceedings of the 7th National Conference on Drinking Water, eds. W. Robertson and G. Somers, pp. 1-11. Conference held in Charlottetown, PEI, August 1996. Ottawa: Canadian Water and Wastewater Association.
  • International Life Sciences Institute, Risk Science Institute Pathogen Risk Assessment Working Group. 1996 . A conceptual framework to assess the risks of human disease following exposure to pathogens . Risk Anal. , 16 : 841 – 848 .
  • Isaac-Renton , J. , Blathervick , J. , Bowie , W. R. , Fyfe , M. , Khan , M. , Li , A. , King , A. , McLean , M. , Medd , L. , Moorehead , W. , Ong , C. S. and Robertson , W. 1999 . Epidemic and endemic seroprevalence of antibodies to Cryptosporidium and Ciardia in residents of three communities with different drinking water supplies . Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. , 60 : 578 – 583 .
  • Krewski, D., Giddings, M., and Paterson, J. 1999. Health risks from drinking water in Canada: Perceptions, assessment, and management. In Balancing risks and reasons: Proceedings of the 7th National Conference on Drinking Water, eds. W. Robertson and G. Somers, pp. 13-31. Conference held in Charlottetown, PEI, August 1996. Ottawa: Canadian Water and Wastewater Association.
  • Krewski , D. , Slovic , P. , Bartlett , S. , Flynn , J. and Mertz , C. K. 1995a . Health risk perception in Canada. I: Rating hazards, sources of information, and responsibility for risk protection . Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess , 1 : 117 – 132 .
  • Stapel , D. A. and Koomen , W. 1997 . Social categorization and perceptual judgment of size: When perception is social . J. Personal. Social Psychol. , 73 : 1177 – 1190 .
  • Sullivan , T. F. P. 1999 . “ Fundamentals of environmental law ” . In Environmental law handbook , Edited by: Sullivan , T. F. P. Rockville, MD : Government Institutes .
  • Teunis , P. F. M. and Havelaar , A. H. 1999 . Cryptosporidium in drinking water: Evaluation of the ILSI/RSI quantitative risk assessment framework , Washington, DC : National Institute of Public Health and the Environment .
  • Teunis , P. F. M. , Medema , G. J. , Kruidenier , L. and Havelaar , A. H. 1997 . Assessment of the risk of infection by Cryptosporidium in drinking water from a surface water source . Water Res. , 31 : 13331346
  • Teunis , P. F. M. , Medema , G. J. , Kruidenier , L. and Havelaar , A. H. 1999 . Dose response models for infectious gastroenteritis . Risk Anal. , 19 : 1251 – 1260 .
  • United Nations Environment Program. 1992. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: Principle 15. Conference on Environment and Development, June 1992, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [online]. Cited 19 November 2001. www.igc.apc.org/habitat/agenda21/rio-dec html.
  • Krewski , D. , Slovic , P. , Bartlett , S. , Flynn , J. and Mertz , C. K. 1995b . Health risk perception in Canada. II: Worldviews, attitudes, and opinions . Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess , 1 : 53 – 70 .
  • Lan , R. and Reeves , P. R. 1996 . Gene transfer is a major factor in bacterial evolution . MoI. Biol. Evolut. , 13 : 4755
  • Laursen , E. , Mygind , O. , Rasmussen , B. and Ronne , T. 1994 . Gastroenteritis: A waterborne outbreak affecting 1600 people in a small Danish town . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 48 : 453 – 458 .
  • Leong , L Y. C. 1983 . Removal and inactivation of viruses by treatment processes for potable water and wastewater: A review . Water Sci. Technol. , 15 : 91
  • Lichtenstein , S. , Earle , T. C. and Slovic , P. 1978 . Judged frequency of lethal events . J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learning Memory , 4 : 551 – 581 .
  • McDaniels , T. L , Kamlet , M. S. and Fischer , G. W. 1992 . Risk perception and the value of safety . Risk Anal. , 12 : 495 – 503 .
  • Mackenzie , W. R. 1994 . A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply . N. Engl. J. Med. , 331 : 161 – 167 .
  • Mackenzie , W. R. 1995 . Massive outbreak of water-borne Cryptosporidium infection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Recurrence of illness and risk of secondary transmission . Clin. Infect. Dis. , 21 : 57 – 62 .
  • Morens , D. M. , Zweighaft , R. M. , Vernon , T. M. , Gary , G. W. , Eslien , J. J. , Wood , B. T. , Holman , R. C and Dolin , R. 1979 . A waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis with secondary person to person spread . Lancet 5 May , : 964 – 966 .
  • Proctor , M. E. , Blair , K. A. and Davis , J. P. 1998 . Surveillance data for water-borne illness detection: An assessment following a massive water-borne outbreak of Cryptosporidium infection . Epidemiol. Infect. , 120 : 4354
  • New Zealand, Ministry of Health. 2000. Drinking water standards for New Zealand [online]. Cited September 25, 2000. www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf.
  • Ochman , H. , Lawrence , J. G. and Groisman , E. A. 2000 . Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacteria innovation . Nature , 405 : 299 – 304 .
  • Okhuysen , P. C , Chappell , C. L. , Sterling , C. R. , Jakubowski , W. and DuPont , H. L. 1998 . Susceptibility and serologic response of healthy adults to reinfection with Cryptosporidium parvum . Infect. Immun. , 66 : 441 – 443 .
  • Okhuysen , P. C , Chappell , C. L. , Sterling. , C. R. , Jakubowski , W. and DuPont , H. L. 1999 . Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults . J. Infect. Dis. , 180 : 1275 – 1281 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.