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Original Articles

Traffic Signal Visibility: A Synthesis of Human Factors and Visual Science Literature with Recommendations for Required Research

Pages 76-88 | Published online: 19 Sep 2013

References

  • Kell, J.H., and Fullerton, I.J. 1982. Manual of traffic signal design. ITE.
  • Janoff, M.S. 1990. Review of traffic signal intensity standards. Final Report. NCHRP Project 20–7(no. 35).
  • National Bureau of Standards. 1967. Colors of signal lights their selection, definition, measurement, production and use. NBS Monograph No. 75. NBS: Washington. DC.
  • CIE. 1980. Light signals for road traffic control. Publication No. 48.
  • CIE. 1975. Colors of light signals. Publication No. 2.2.
  • Cole, B.L. 1970. The colour blind driver. Australian Journal of Optometry.
  • CIE. 1988. A guide for the design of road traffic lights. CIE Publication No. 79, 1st edition.
  • National Bureau of Standards. 1971. Glass limit standards deposited at NBS for railway, highway and airways traffic signal colors—History, performance and colorimetric properties. Technical Note No. 564. NBS: Washington, DC.
  • Breckenridge, F.C. Background and objectives of the US standard for colors of signal lights. NBS: Washington, DC.
  • ITE. 1985. Vehicle control signal heads. Standard No. ST-008B.
  • Nathan, J.; Henry, G.H.; and Cole, B.L. 1963. Recognition of road traffic signals by persons with normal and defective colour vision. Australian Road Research.
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  • Fisher, A., and Cole, B.L. 1974. The photometric requirements of vehicular traffic signal lanterns. ARRB Proceedings 7 (no. 5).
  • Massof, R.W. Predicted discriminability of the 3M selective indication signal by color deficient observers. St. Paul, MN: 3M Company.
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  • Adrian, W. 1963. On the visibility of traffic signals. Lichttechnik 15 (no. 3).
  • Jainski, P. and Schmidt-Clausen, J. 1967. On the influence of background light on the perceptability of colored signal lights. Lichttechnik 19 (no. 1).
  • Rutley, K.S.; Christie, A.W.; and Fisher, A. 1965. Photometric requirements for traffic signals: Peak intensities. Vol 1. RRL: England.
  • Cole, B.L., and Brown, B. 1968. Specification of road traffic signal light intensity. Human Factors 10 (no. 3).
  • Fisher, A. 1969. A photometric specification for vehicular traffic signal lanterns: Part 1: Luminous intensity necessary for the detection of signals on the line of sight. NSW, Australia: Dept. of Motor Transport.
  • Hulscher, F.R. 1975. Photometric requirements for long-range road traffic light signals. J of the Australian Road Research Board 5 (no. 7).
  • Cole, B.L., and Brown, B. 1966. A note on the effectiveness of surround screens for road traffic signal lights. J of the Australian Road Research Board 2 (no. 10).
  • Fisher, A. 1969. A photometric specification for vehicular traffic signal lanterns: Part 2: Luminous intensity necessary for the detection of signals eccentric to the line of sight. NSW, Australia: Dept. of Motor Transport.
  • Jainski, P., and Schmidt-Clausen, J. 1967. On the influence of backplates on the perceptability of colored signal lights. Lichttechnik 19 (no. 3).
  • Hulscher, F.R. 1974. Practical implementation of performance objectives for traffic light signals. ARRB Proceedings 7 (no. 5).
  • Sator, W.H.J., and Nel, P.W. 1987. Visibility of traffic lights in Pretoria. South Africa: National Institute for Transport and Road Research.
  • Cole, B.L., and Brown, B. 1965. Intensity of in-service road traffic signal lights. J of the Australian Road Research Board 2 (no. 6).
  • Cole, B.L., and Brown, B. 1966. Optimum intensity of red road-traffic signal lights for normal and protanopic observers. Journal of the Optical Society of America 56 (no. 4).
  • King, G.F. 1977. Guidelines for uniformity in traffic signal design configurations NCHRP Project 3–23.
  • King, G.F. 1981. Visibility of circular traffic-signal indications. TRR 811.
  • Cole, B.L. 1966. Distribution of intensity for road traffic signal lights. Journal of the Australian Road Research Board 2 (no. 10).
  • Cole, B.L., and Brown, B. 1969. An analysis of sun phantom in road traffic signal lights. Journal of the Australian Road Research Board 3 (no. 10).
  • Clark, B.A.J. 1969. Prediction of signal phantom from laboratory measurements. Journal of the Australian Road Research Board 4 (no. 1).
  • Fisher, A. 1971. A photometric specification for vehicular traffic signal lanterns: Part 3: The necessary limitation of sun phantom. NSW, Australia: Dept. of Motor Transport.
  • Freedman, M. et al, 1985. Traffic signal brightness: an examination of nighttime dimming FHWA RD-85–005.
  • Jenkins, S. undated. Maximum intensities of traffic signals for nighttime operation. Discussion paper prepared for the Australian Standards Committee.
  • Brown, B., and Cole, B.L. 1969. The effect of visual noise on the recognition of road traffic signal lights. Journal of the Australian Road Research Board 4 (no. 1).
  • Bryant, J.F.M., and Smith, G. 1976. The shape of traffic signal arrows Proc ARRB. 8 (no. 5).
  • Smith, G., and Weir, R. 1975. Visibility studies of symbols used for traffic and pedestrian control lanterns Report No. 38. Australian Road Research Board.
  • Rutley, K.S., and Christie, A.W. 1966. A comparison of ten varieties of traffic signal filter arrow RRL Report No. 33. Road Research Laboratory.

References

  • Hirvich, L.M. 1981. Color vision. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Asociates.
  • Jameson, D., and Hurvich, L.M. 1978. Dichromatic color language: Red and greens don't look alike but their colors do. Sensory Processes 2: 146–155.
  • Cole, B.L., and Vingrys, A.J. 1985. Are standards of color vision in the transport industry justified? Report to the Australian Department of Aviation.

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