The psychological reality of social constructions

References

• ALLPORT , GORDON W. 1958 . The Nature of Prejudice, , 1st ed. , Garden City, NY : Doubleday Anchor . 1954
   Google Scholar
• APPIAH , KWAME ANTHONY . 1989 . ‘The conservation of “race” . Black American Literature Forum , 23 ( 1 ) : 37 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• ASCH , SOLOMON E. 1946 . ‘Forming impressions of personality’ . Journal of Abnormal arid Social Psychology , 41 ( 3 ) : 258 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BAGLEY , CHRISTOPHER . 1979 . Personality, Self‐Esteem and Prejudice , Westmead : Saxon House .
   Google Scholar
• BAYTON , JAMES A. 1941 . ‘Racial stereotypes of Negro college students’ . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 36 ( 1 ) : 97 – 102 .
   Google Scholar
• McALISTER , L. B. and HAMER , J. R. 1956 . ‘Race‐class stereotypes’ . Journal of Negro Education , Winter : 75 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• BEM , SANDRA LIPSITZ . 1981 . ‘Gender schema theory: a cognitive account of sex typing’ . Psychological Review , 88 ( 4 ) : 354 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BLOCK , N. J. and DWORKIN , GERALD , eds. 1976 . The IQ Controversy: Critical Readings , New York : Pantheon Books .
   Google Scholar
• BRANCO , K. J. and WILLIAMSON , JOHN B. 1982 . “ ‘Stereotyping and the life cycle: views of aging and the aged’ ” . In In the Eye of the Beholder: Contemporary Issues in Stereotyping , Edited by: Miller , Arthur G. 364 – 410 . New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• BRAND , ELAINE S. , RUIZ , RENE A. and PADILLA , AMADO M. 1974 . ‘Ethnic identification and preference: a review’ . Psychological Bulletin , 81 ( 11 ) : 860 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRIGHAM , CARL C. 1923 . A Study of American Intelligence , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• BROWN v. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA . 1954 . 1986 Social Psychology the , Second Edition , New York : Free Press . 347 US 483 BROWN, ROGER
   Google Scholar
• BUTLER , JUDITH . 1990 . Gender Trouble , New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• CAMPBELL , DONALD T. 1965 . “ ‘Ethnocentrism and other altruistic motives’ ” . In Nebraska symposium on motivation , Edited by: Levine , David . Vol. 13 , 283 – 311 . Lincoln, NE : The University of Nebraska Press .
   Google Scholar
• CASTLES , STEPHEN and KOSACK , G. 1973 . Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, , 2nd ed. , London : Oxford University Press . 1985]
   Google Scholar
• CLARK , KENNETH B. 1965 . Dark ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power , New York : Harper and Row .
   Google Scholar
• _____ and CLARK , MAMIE P. 1947 . “ ‘Racial identification and preference in Negro children’ ” . In Readings in Social Psychology , Edited by: Newcombe , Theodore and Hartley , Eugene L. 169 – 78 . New York : Holt .
   Google Scholar
• COHEN , ALBERT K. and HODGES , HAROLD M. 1963 . ‘Characteristics of the lower‐blue‐collar‐class’ . Social Problems , 10 ( 4 ) : 303 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• COHEN , CLAUDIA E. 1981 . ‘Person categories and social perception: testing some boundaries of the processing effects of prior knowledge’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 40 ( 3 ) : 441 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CONER‐EDWARDS , ALICE F. and SPURLOCK , JEANNE , eds. 1988 . Black Families in Crisis: The Middle Class , New York : Bruner/Mazel .
   Google Scholar
• DARLEY , JOHN M. and GROSS , PAGET H. 1983 . ‘A hypothesis‐confirming bias in labeling effects’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 44 ( 1 ) : 20 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEVINE , PATRICIA G. 1989 . ‘Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56 ( 1 ) : 5 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DUBOIS , WILLIAM E. B. 1940 . Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward the Autobiography of a Race Concept , New York : Harcourt, Brace and Co .
   Google Scholar
• DURKHEIM , EMILE . 1895 . The Rules of Sociological Method , Edited by: Solovay , S. A. and Mueller , J. H. New York : Free Press . 1950
   Google Scholar
• ELLER , JACK DAVID and COUGHLAN , REED M. 1993 . ‘The poverty of primordialism: the demystification of ethnic attachments’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 16 ( 2 ) : 183 – 202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FESTINGER , LEON . 1957 . A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance , New York : Row, Peterson .
   Google Scholar
• FRAZIER , E. FRANKLIN . 1957 . Black Bourgeoisie , Glencoe, IL : The Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• FREDRICKSON , GEORGE M. 1971 . The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro‐American Character and Destiny 1817–1914 , New York : Harper and Row .
   Google Scholar
• _____ . 1988 . The Arrogance of Race: Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism, and Social Inequality , Middletown, CT : Wesleyan University Press .
   Google Scholar
• GALTON , FRANCIS . 1884 . Hereditary Genius , New York : D. Appelton .
   Google Scholar
• GATES , HENRY LOUIS , ed. 1986 . ‐Race’, Writing and Difference , Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• GERGEN , KENNETH J. 1985 . ‘The social constructionist movement in modern psychology’ . American Psychologist , 40 ( 3 ) : 266 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GILBERT , G. M. 1951 . ‘Stereotype persistence and change among college students’ . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 46 ( 2 ) : 245 – 54 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GILROY , PAUL . 1987 . There Ain't no Black in the Union Jack , London : Hutchinson .
   Google Scholar
• GORDON , MILTON . 1978 . Human Nature, Class, and Ethnicity , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• GOULD , STEPHEN JAY . 1981 . The Mismeasure of Man , New York : W. W. Norton .
   Google Scholar
• GRABER , JULIA A. and PETERSEN , ANNE C. 1991 . “ ‘Cognitive changes at adolescence: biological perspectives’ ” . In Brain Maturation and Cognitive Development: Comparative and Cross‐Cultural Perspectives , Edited by: Gibson , Kathleen R. and Peterson , Anne C. 253 – 79 . New York : Aldine de Gruyter .
   Google Scholar
• HAKLUYT , R. 1589 . The Principal Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries of the English Nation London
   Google Scholar
• HALL , G. STANLEY . 1909 . “ ‘Eddyism and Emmanuelism’ ” . Clark University Archives . Hall Papers, Box 28, Folder 1
   Google Scholar
• HAMILTON , HARRY L. Jr. 1980 . “ ‘Comment’ ” . In The Black Middle Class , Edited by: Lynn , Mary C. and Berry , Benjamin D. 17 – 9 . Saratoga Springs, NY : Skidmore College .
   Google Scholar
• HARTLEY , EUGENE L. 1946 . Problems in Prejudice , New York : Kings Crown Press .
   Google Scholar
• HOUSE , JAMES S. 1977 . ‘The three faces of social psychology’ . Sociometry , 40 ( 2 ) : 161 – 77 .
   Google Scholar
• HRABA , JOSEPH and GRANT , GEOFFREY . 1970 . ‘Black is beautiful: a re‐examination of racial preference and identification’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 16 ( 3 ) : 398 – 402 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• INKELES , ALEX . 1963 . “ ‘Sociology and psychology’ ” . In Psychology: The Study of a Science , Edited by: Koch , Sigmund . Vol. 6 , 317 – 87 . New York : McGraw‐Hill .
   Google Scholar
• JENSEN , ARTHUR R. 1976 . “ ‘Race and genetics of intelligence: a reply to Lewontin’ ” . In The IQ Controversy: Critical Readings , Edited by: Block , N. J. and Dworkin , Gerald . 93 – 106 . New York : Pantheon Books . [rpt., 1970]
   Google Scholar
• JORDAN , WINTHROP D. 1968 . White Over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro 1550–1812 , Chapel Hill, NC : The University of North Carolina Press .
   Google Scholar
• KARLINS , MARVIN , COFFMAN , THOMAS L. and WALTERS , GARY . 1969 . ‘On the fading of social stereotypes: studies in three generations of college students’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 13 ( 1 ) : 1 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• KATZ , DANIEL and BRALY , KENNETH W. 1933 . ‘Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students’ . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 28 ( 3 ) : 280 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• KOZULIN , ALEX . 1991 . ‘Life as authoring: the humanistic tradition in Russian psychology’ . New Ideas in Psychology , 9 ( 3 ) : 335 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LANDRY , BART . 1987 . The New Black Middle Class , Berkeley, CA : The University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• LINVILLE , PATRICIA W. 1982 . ‘The complexity‐extremity effect and age‐based stereotyping’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 42 ( 2 ) : 193 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LOCKSLEY , ANNE , ORTIZ , VILMA and HEPBURN , CHRISTINE . 1980 . ‘Social categorization and discriminatory behavior: extinguishing the minimal intergroup discrimination effect’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 39 ( 5 ) : 773 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LORBER , JUDITH and FARRELL , SUSAN A. , eds. 1991 . The Social Construction of Gender , Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• LORD , CHARLES G. and SAENZ , DELIA S. 1985 . ‘Memory deficits and memory surfeits: differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 49 ( 4 ) : 918 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LYNN , RICHARD . 1987 . ‘The intelligence of the Mongoloids: a psychometric, evolutionary, and neurological theory’ . Personality and Individual Differences , 8 ( 6 ) : 813 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MCALLISTER , IAN and MOORE , RHONDA . 1991 . ‘The development of ethnic prejudice: an analysis of Australian immigrants’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 14 ( 2 ) : 127 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MACCOBY , ELEANOR EMMONS and JACKLIN , CAROL NAGY . 1974 . The Psychology of Sex Differences , Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• O'LEARY , VIRGINIA E. , UNGER , RHODA KESLER and WALLSTON , BARBARA STRUDLER , eds. 1985 . Women, Gender and Social Psychology , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• OSGOOD , CHARLES E. , SUCI , GEORGE J. and TANNERBAUM , PERCY H. 1957 . The Measurement of Meaning , Urbana, IL : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• PETTIGREW , THOMAS F. 1978 . “ ‘Three issues in ethnicity: boundaries, deprivations, and perceptions’ ” . In Major Social Issues , Edited by: Yinger , J. Milton and Cutler , R. 25 – 49 . New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• _____ . 1979 . ‘The ultimate attribution error: extending Allport's cognitive analysis of prejudice’ . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 5 ( 4 ) : 461 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• _____ . 1981 . ‘Race and class in the 1980s: an interactive view’ . Dœdalus , 110 ( 2 ) : 233 – 56 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• _____ and MARTIN , JOANNE . 1987 . ‘Shaping the organizational context for black American inclusion’ . Journal of Social Issues , 43 ( 1 ) : 41 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PHIZACKLEA , ANNIE . 1984 . ‘A sociology of migration or “race relations"? A view from Britain’ . Current Sociology , 32 ( 3 ) : 199 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PORTER , JUDITH D. 1971 . Black Child, White Child: The Development of Racial Attitudes , Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• PRAGER , JEFFREY . 1987 . ‘American political culture and the shifting meaning of race’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 10 ( 1 ) : 62 – 81 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• REED , ADOLPH L. Jr. 1979 . ‘Black particularity reconsidered’ . Telos , 12 ( 1 ) : 71 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• _____ . 1991 . ‘Steele trap’ . The Nation , 252 ( 8 ) : 733 – 36 .
   Google Scholar
• ROSENBERG , MORRIS . 1989 . ‘Old myths die hard: the case of black self‐esteem’ . Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale , 2 ( 3 ) : 355 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• ROSENBERG , SEYMOUR , NELSON , CARNOT and VIVEKANANTHANP , S. 1968 . ‘A multidimensional approach to the structure of personality impressions’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 9 ( 4 ) : 283 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ROSS , LEE . 1977 . “ ‘The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: distortions in the attribution process’ ” . In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Edited by: Berkowitz , Leonard . vol. 10 , 173 – 220 .
   Google Scholar
• RUSHTON , J. PHILIPPE . 1988 . ‘Race differences in behaviour: a review and evolutionary analysis’ . Personality and Individual Differences , 9 ( 6 ) : 1009 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SCHUMAN , HOWARD , STEEH , CHARLOTTE and BOBO , LAWRENCE . 1985 . Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations , Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• SCOTT , GEORGE M. Jr. 1990 . ‘A resynthesis of the primordial and circumstantial approaches to ethnic group solidarity: towards an explanatory model’ . Racial and Ethnic Studies , 13 ( 2 ) : 147 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SHIELDS , STEPHANIE A. 1975 . ‘Functionalism, Darwinism, and the psychology of women: a study in social myth’ . American Psychologist , 30 ( 7 ) : 739 – 54 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SMEDLEY , JOSEPH W. and BAYTON , JAMES A. 1978 . ‘Evaluative race‐class stereotypes by race and perceived class of subjects’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 36 ( 5 ) : 530 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SMITH , ELIOT R. and ZARATE , MICHAEL A. 1992 . ‘Exemplar‐based model of social judgment’ . Psychological Review , 99 ( 1 ) : 3 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SOLLORS , WERNER . 1986 . Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• _____ , ed. 1989 . The Invention of Ethnicity , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• SOLOMOS , JOHN . 1986 . “ ‘Varieties of Marxist conceptions of “race”, class and the state: a critical analysis’ ” . In Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations , Edited by: Rex , John and Mason , David . 84 – 109 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• STAFFORD , SUSAN BUCHANAN . 1987 . “ ‘The Haitians: the cultural meaning of race and ethnicity’ ” . In New Immigrants in New York , Edited by: Foner , Nancy . 131 – 58 . New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• STAGNOR , CHARLES . 1992 . ‘Categorization of individuals on the basis of multiple social features’ . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 62 ( 2 ) : 207 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEELE , SHELBY . 1988 . ‘On being black and middle class’ . Commentary , 85 ( 1 ) : 42 – 7 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• _____ . 1990 . The Contení of Our Character: A New Vision of Race in America , New York : St Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• TAJFEL , HENRI , ed. 1984 . The Social Dimension , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• _____ . 1971 . ‘Social categorization and intergroup behaviour’ . European Journal of Social Psychology , 1 ( 2 ) : 149 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TERMAN , LEWIS . 1916 . The Measurement of Intelligence , Boston : Houghton Miffiin .
   Google Scholar
• VAN DEN BERGHE , PIERRE L. 1978 . ‘Race and ethnicity: a sociobiological perspective’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 1 ( 4 ) : 401 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• WATSON , JOHN B. 1924 . Behaviorism , Chicago, IL : The University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• WESTIE , FRANK R. and WESTIE , MARGARET L. 1957 . ‘The social‐distance pyramid: relationships between caste and class’ . American Journal of Sociology , 63 ( 2 ) : 190 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILLIAMS , CHRISTINA L. , BARNETT , ALLISON M. and MECK , WARREN H. 1990 . ‘Organizational effects of early gonadal secretions on sexual differentiation in spatial memory’ . Behavioral Neuroscience , 104 ( 1 ) : 84 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WILSON , WILLIAM JULIUS . 1978 . The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions , Chicago, IL : The University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• WOLPE , HAROLD . 1986 . “ ‘Class concepts, class struggle and racism’ ” . In Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations , Edited by: Rex , John and Mason , David . 110 – 30 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar