How teachers can help learners build storage and retrieval strength

References

• Alessi SM. 1988. Fidelity in the design of instructional simulations. J Comput Case Instr. 15:40–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DC, Harris IB, Allen S, Satran L, Bland CJ, Davis-Feickert JA, Poland GA, Miller WJ. 1991. Comparing students' feedback about clinical instruction with their performances. Acad Med. 66:29–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley AD, Hitch G. (1974). Working memory. In: Bower GH, editor. The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. Vol 8. New York (NY): Academic Press; p. 47–89.
   Google Scholar
• Bangert-Drowns RL, Kulik CLC, Kulik JA, Morgan MT. 1991. The instructional effect of feedback in test-like events. Rev Educ Res. 61:213–238.
   Google Scholar
• Bargh JA, Schul Y. 1980. On the cognitive benefits of teaching. J Educ Psychol. 72:593–604.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjork A, Bjork EL. 1992. A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation. In: Healy A, Kosslyn S, Shiffrin R, editors. From learning processes to cognitive processes: essays in honor of William K. Estes. Vol 2. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum; p. 35–67.
   Google Scholar
• Brown JS, Collins A, Duguid P. 1989. Situated cognition and the culture of learning. J Educ Res. 18:32–42.
   Google Scholar
• Chamberland M, St-Onge C, Setrakian J, Lanthier L, Bergeron L, Bourget A, Mamede S, Schmidt H, Rikers R. 2011. The influence of medical students' self-explanations on diagnostic performance. Med Educ. 45:688–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler P, Sweller J. 1992. The split-attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction. Br J Educ Psychol. 62:233–246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chase WG, Simon HA. 1973. Perception in chess. Cogn Psychol. 4:55–61.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi MTH, Leeuw N, Chiu MH, Lavancher C. 1994. Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cogn Sci. 18:439–477.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook DA, Brydges R, Zendejas B, Hamstra SJ, Hatala R. 2013. Mastery learning for health professionals using technology-enhanced simulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Med. 88:1178–1186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobson JL, Linderholm T. 2015. Self-testing promotes superior retention of anatomy and physiology information. Adv in Health Sci Educ. 20:149–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eich JE. 1980. The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. Mem Cognit. 8:157–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson KA, Kintsch W. 1995. Long-term working memory. Psychol Rev. 102:211–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez A, Glenberg AM. 1985. Changing environmental context does not reliably affect memory. Mem Cogn. 13:333–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiorella L, Mayer RE. 2016. Eight ways to promote generative learning. Educ Psychol Rev. 28:717–741.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitts PM, Posner MI. 1967. Human performance. Oxford: Brooks/Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Fraser K, Wright B, Girard L, Tworek J, Paget M, Welikovich L, McLaughlin K. 2011. Simulation training improves diagnostic performance on a real patient with similar clinical findings. Chest. 139:376–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godden DR, Baddeley AD. 1975. Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: on land and underwater. Br J Psychol. 66:325–331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory A, Walker I, McLaughlin K, Peets AD. 2011. Both preparing to teach and teaching positively impact learning outcomes for peer teachers. Med Teach. 33:e417–e422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griswold-Theodorson S, Ponnuru S, Dong C, Szyld D, Reed T, McGaghie WC. 2015. Beyond the simulation laboratory: a realist synthesis review of clinical outcomes of simulation-based mastery learning. Acad Med. 90:1553–1560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattie J, Timperley H. 2007. The power of feedback. Rev Educ Res. 77:81–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofer SB, Mrsic-Flogel TD, Bonhoeffer T, Hübener M. 2009. Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits. Nature. 457:313–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issenberg SB, McGaghie WC, Petrusa ER, Gordon DL, Scalese RJ. 2005. Features and use of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: a BEME systematic review. MedTeach. 27:10–28.
   Google Scholar
• Issenberg SB, Scalese RJ. 2008. Simulation in health care education. Perspect Biol Med. 51:31–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Junod Perron N, Louis-Simonet M, Cerutti B, Pfarrwaller E, Sommer J, Nendaz M. 2016. The quality of feedback during formative OSCEs depends on the tutors' profile. BMC Med Educ. 16:293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpicke JD, Roediger HL, 3rd. 2008. The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science. 319:966–968.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerfoot BP, DeWolf WC, Masser BA, Church PA, Federman DD. 2007. Spaced education improves the retention of clinical knowledge by medical students: a randomised controlled trial. Med Educ. 41:23–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornell N, Bjork RA. 2008. Learning concepts and categories: is spacing the “enemy of induction”? Psychol Sci. 19:585–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen DP, Butler AC, Roediger HL, 3rd. 2009. Repeated testing improves long-term retention relative to repeated study: a randomised controlled trial. Med Educ. 43:1174–1181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer RE. 2008. Applying the science of learning: evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction. Am Psychol. 63:760–769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer RE. 2010. Applying the science of learning to medical education. Med Educ. 44:543–549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell MM, St-Onge C, Young ME. 2015. The benefits of testing for learning on later performance. Adv in Health Sci Educ. 20:305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mermillod M, Bugaiska A, Bonin P. 2013. The stability-plasticity dilemma: investigating the continuum from catastrophic forgetting to age-limited learning effects. Front Psychol. 4:504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller GA. 1956. The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychol Rev. 63:81–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno R, Mayer RE. 2000. A coherence effect in multimedia learning: the case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia instructional messages. J Educ Psychol. 92:117–125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng'ambi D, Lombe A. 2012. Using podcasting to facilitate student learning: a constructivist perspective. J Educ Techno Soc. 15:181–192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nihalani PK, Mayrath M, Robinson DH. 2011. When feedback harms and collaboration helps in computer simulation environments: an expertise reversal effect. J Educ Techno Soc. 103:776–785.
   Google Scholar
• Norman GR, Brooks LR, Allen SW. 1989. Recall by expert medical practitioners and novices as a record of processing attention. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 15:1166–1174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman G, Dore K, Grierson L. 2012. The minimal relationship between simulation fidelity and transfer of learning. Med Educ. 46:636–647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S. 2008. Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? Psychol Rev. 115:544–576.
   Google Scholar
• Peets AD, Coderre S, Wright B, Jenkins D, Burak K, Leskosky S, McLaughlin K. 2009. Involvement in teaching improves learning in medical students: a randomized cross-over study. BMC Med Educ. 9:55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peets AD, Cooke L, Wright B, Coderre S, McLaughlin K. 2010. A prospective randomized trial of content expertise versus process expertise in small group teaching. BMC Med Educ. 10:70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prober CG, Khan S. 2013. Medical education reimagined: a call to action. Acad Med. 88:1407–1410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raaijmakers J. 2003. Spacing and repetition effects in human memory: application of the SAM model. Cog Sci. 14:49–59.
   Google Scholar
• Radvansky GA, Copeland DE. 2006. Walking through doorways causes forgetting: situation models and experienced space. Mem Cogn. 34:1150–1156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raman M, McLaughlin K, Violato C, Rostom A, Allard JP, Coderre S. 2010. Teaching in small portions dispersed over time enhances long-term knowledge retention. Medi Teach. 32:250–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rehmann A, Mitman R, Reynolds M. 1995. A handbook of flight simulation fidelity requirements for human factors research. Wright-Patterson AFB, OH: Crew Systems Ergonomics Information Analysis Center. Technical Report no. DOT/FAA/CT-TN96/46.
   Google Scholar
• Roediger HL, 3rd, Karpicke JD. 2006. Test-enhanced learning: taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychol Sci. 17:249–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherry DF, Schacter DL. 1987. The evolution of multiple memory systems. Psychol Rev. 94:439–454.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shuell TJ. 1986. Cognitive conceptions of learning. Rev Educ Res. 56:411–436.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweller J. 1988. Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning. Cog Sci. 12:257–285.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swinnen SP, Schmidt RA, Nicholson DE, Shapiro DC. 1990. Information feedback for skill acquisition: instantaneous knowledge of results degrades learning. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 16:706–716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torre DM, Daley BJ, Sebastian JL, Elnicki DM. 2006. Overview of current learning theories for medical educators. Am J Med. 119:903–907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tulving E, Thomson DM. 1973. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psycholl Rev. 80:352–373.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tulving E, Schacter DL, Stark HA. 1982. Priming effects in word fragment completion are independent of recognition memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 8:336–342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verkoeijen PP, Rikers RM, Schmidt HG. 2004. Detrimental influence of contextual change on spacing effects in free recall. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 30:796–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh CM, Ling SC, Wang CS, Carnahan H. 2009. Concurrent versus terminal feedback: it may be better to wait. Acad Med. 84:S54–S57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstein CJ, Schmidt RA. 1990. Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 16:677–691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods NN, Brooks LR, Norman GR. 2005. The value of basic science in clinical diagnosis: creating coherence among signs and symptoms. Med Educ. 39:107–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods NN, Neville AJ, Levinson AJ, Howey EH, Oczkowski WJ, Norman GR. 2006. The value of basic science in clinical diagnosis. Acad Med. 81:S124–S127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods NN, Brooks LR, Norman GR. 2007. It all make sense: biomedical knowledge, causal connections and memory in the novice diagnostician. Adv in Health Sci Educ. 12:405–415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wylie R, Chi MTH. 2014. The self-explanation principle in multimedia learning. In: Myers RE, editor. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. 2nd ed. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press; p. 413–432.
   Google Scholar
• Young JQ, Van Merrienboer J, Durning S, Ten Cate O. 2014. Cognitive load theory: implications for medical education: AMEE Guide No. 86. Med Teach. 36:371–384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar