The Student-Generated Reasoning Tool (SGRT): Linking medical knowledge and clinical reasoning in preclinical education

References

• Bales RF. 1950. A set of categories for the analysis of small group interaction. Am Sociol Rev. 15(2):257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boshuizen HPA, Schmidt HG. 1992. On the role of biomedical knowledge in clinical reasoning by experts, intermediates and novices. Cogn Sci. 16(2):153–184.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowen JL. 2006. Educational strategies to promote clinical diagnostic reasoning. N Engl J Med. 355:2217–2225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brush JE, Lee M, Sherbino J, Taylor-Fishwick JC, Norman G. 2019. Effect of teaching bayesian methods using learning by concept vs learning by example on medical students’ ability to estimate probability of a diagnosis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2(12):e1918023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charlin B, Deschênes M-F, Fernandez N. 2021. Learning by concordance (LbC) to develop professional reasoning skills: AMEE Guide No. 141. Med Teach. 43(6):614–614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charlin B, Roy L, Brailovsky C, Goulet F, van der Vleuten C. 2000. The script concordance test: a tool to assess the reflective clinician. Teach Learn Med. 12(4):189–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charlin B, Tardif J, Boshuizen HPA. 2000. Scripts and medical diagnostic knowledge: theory and applications for clinical reasoning instruction and research. Acad Med. 75(2):182–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor DM, Durning SJ, Rencic JJ. 2020. Clinical reasoning as a core competency. Acad Med. 95(8):1166–1171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Custers EJFM. 2015. Thirty years of illness scripts: theoretical origins and practical applications. Med Teach. 37(5):457–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daley BJ, Torre DM. 2010. Concept maps in medical education: an analytical literature review. Med Educ. 44(5):440–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Bruin ABH, Schmidt HG, Rikers RMJP. 2005. The role of basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge in diagnostic reasoning: a structural equation modeling approach. Acad Med. 80(8):765–773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duggan P, Charlin B. 2012. Summative assessment of 5th year medical students’ clinical reasoning by script concordance test: requirements and challenges. BMC Med Educ. 12(1):29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Facione PA. 1990. Critical thinking: a statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Research findings and recommendations. Newark, Del.: American Philosophical Association.
   Google Scholar
• Fernandez N, Foucault A, Dubé S, Robert D, Lafond C, Vincent A-M, Kassis J, Kazitani D, Charlin B. 2016. Learning-by-Concordance (LbC): introducing undergraduate students to the complexity and uncertainty of clinical practice. Can Med Educ J. 7(2):e104–e113.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fischer K, Sullivan A, Krupat E, Schwartzstein R. 2019. Assessing the effectiveness of using mechanistic concept maps in case-based collaborative learning. Acad Med. 94(2):208–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gale NK, Heath G, Cameron E, Rashid S, Redwood S. 2013. Using the framework method for the analysis of qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research. BMC Med Res Methodol. 13:117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman E, Schroth WS. 2012. Perspective: deconstructing integration: a framework for the rational application of integration as a guiding curricular r strategy. Acad Med. 87(6):729–734.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green J, Thorogood N. 2004. Qualitative methods for health research. London: SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Green ML. 1999. Graduate medical education training in clinical epidemiology, critical appraisal, and evidence-based medicine: a critical review of curricula. Acad Med. 74(6):686–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guba EG. 1981. Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educ Commun Techn. 29(2):75–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauer KE, Boscardin C, Brenner JM, van Schaik SM, Papp KK. 2020. Twelve tips for assessing medical knowledge with open-ended questions: designing constructed response examinations in medical education. Med Teach. 42(8):880–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes MM, Chatterjee S, Schwartzstein RM. 2017. Critical thinking in critical care: five strategies to improve teaching and learning in the intensive care unit. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 14(4):569–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennessey BA, Amabile T. 1987. Creativity and learning. Washington D.C: NEA Professional Library, National Education Association.
   Google Scholar
• Humbert AJ, Johnson MT, Miech E, Friedberg F, Grackin JA, Seidman PA. 2011. Assessment of clinical reasoning: A Script Concordance test designed for pre-clinical medical students. Med Teach. 33(6):472–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humbert AJ, Miech EJ. 2014. Measuring gains in the clinical reasoning of medical students: longitudinal results from a school-wide script concordance test. Acad Med. 89(7):1046–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krathwohl DR. 2002. A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: an overview. Theory Pract. 41(4):212–218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krupat E, Richards JB, Sullivan AM, Fleenor TJ, Schwartzstein RM. 2016. Assessing the effectiveness of case-based collaborative learning via randomized controlled trial. Acad Med. 91(5):723–729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubarsky S, Charlin B, Cook DA, Chalk C, Van Der Vleuten CPM. 2011. Script concordance testing: a review of published validity evidence. Med Educ. 45(4):329–32938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubarsky S, Dory V, Duggan P, Gagnon R, Charlin B. 2013. Script concordance testing: from theory to practice: AMEE Guide No. 75. Med Teach. 35(3):184–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mamede S, Figueiredo-Soares T, Santos SME, Faria RMD, de Schmidt HG, Gog T. v. 2019. Fostering novice students’ diagnostic ability: the value of guiding deliberate reflection. Med Educ. 53(6):628–637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mamede S, Schmidt HG, Penaforte JC. 2008. Effects of reflective practice on the accuracy of medical diagnoses. Med Educ. 42(5):468–475.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mamede S, van Gog T, Moura AS, de Faria RMD, Peixoto JM, Rikers RMJP, Schmidt HG. 2012. Reflection as a strategy to foster medical students’ acquisition of diagnostic competence. Med Educ. 46(5):464–472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michaelsen LK, Sweet M. 2008. The essential elements of team-based learning. New Dir Teach Learn. 2008(116):7–27.
   Google Scholar
• Monteiro S, Sherbino J, Sibbald M, Norman G. 2020. Critical thinking, biases and dual processing: the enduring myth of generalisable skills. Med Educ. 54(1):66–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman GR, Monteiro SD, Sherbino J, Ilgen JS, Schmidt HG, Mamede S. 2017. The causes of errors in clinical reasoning: cognitive biases, knowledge deficits, and dual process thinking. Acad Med. 92(1):23–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope C, Ziebland S, Mays N. 2000. Qualitative research in health care. Analysing qualitative data. BMJ. 320(7227):114–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards JB, Hayes MM, Schwartzstein RM. 2020. Teaching clinical reasoning and critical thinking: from cognitive theory to practical application. Chest. 158(4):1617–1628. [accessed 2020 Jun 19].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger HL, Butler AC. 2011. The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends Cogn Sci. 15(1):20–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rottman BM. 2017. Physician Bayesian updating from personal beliefs about the base rate and likelihood ratio. Mem Cognit. 45(2):270–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Royce CS, Hayes MM, Schwartzstein RM. 2019. Teaching critical thinking: a case for instruction in cognitive biases to reduce diagnostic errors and improve patient safety. Acad Med. 94(2):187–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt HG, Boshuizen HP. 1993. On acquiring expertise in medicine. Educ Psychol Rev. 5(3):205–221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt HG, Mamede S. 2015. How to improve the teaching of clinical reasoning: a narrative review and a proposal. Med Educ. 49(10):961–973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt HG, Norman GR, Boshuizen HP. 1990. A cognitive perspective on medical expertise: theory and implication. Acad Med. 65(10):611–621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt HG, Rikers RMJP. 2007. How expertise develops in medicine: knowledge encapsulation and illness script formation. Med Educ. 41(12):1133–1139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt HG, Rotgans JI, Rajalingam P, Low-Beer N. 2019. A psychological foundation for team-based learning: knowledge reconsolidation. Acad Med. 94(12):1878–1883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartzstein RM, Dienstag JL, King RW, Chang BS, Flanagan JG, Besche HC, Hoenig MP, Miloslavsky EM, Atkins KM, Puig A, et al. 2020. The Harvard Medical School pathways curriculum: reimagining developmentally appropriate medical education for contemporary learners. Acad Med. 95(11):1687–1695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shenton AK. 2004. Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Educ Inf. 22(2):63–75.
   Google Scholar
• ten Cate O, Durning SJ. 2018. Understanding clinical reasoning from multiple perspectives: a conceptual and theoretical overview. In: ten Cate O, Custers EJFM, Durning SJ, editors. Principles and practice of case-based clinical reasoning education: a method for preclinical students. Cham: Springer International Publishing; p. 35–46.
   Google Scholar
• Torrance EP. 1993. Understanding creativity: where to start? Psychol Inq. 4(3):232–234.
   Google Scholar
• Woods NN, Neville AJ, Levinson AJ, Howey EHA, Oczkowski WJ, Norman GR. 2006. The value of basic science in clinical diagnosis. Acad Med. 81(10 Suppl):S124–S127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young M, Thomas A, Gordon D, Gruppen L, Lubarsky S, Rencic J, Ballard T, Holmboe E, Da Silva A, Ratcliffe T, et al. 2019. The terminology of clinical reasoning in health professions education: Implications and considerations. Med Teach. 41(11):1277–1284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar