Equity in medical education: Addressing microaggressions and discrimination on the wards

References

• Acholonu RG, Cook TE, Roswell RO, Greene RE. 2020. Interrupting microaggressions in health care settings: a guide for teaching medical students. MedEdPORTAL. 16:10969.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ackerman-Barger K, Boatright D, Gonzalez-Colaso R, Orozco R, Latimore D. 2019. Seeking inclusion excellence: understanding racial microaggressions as experienced by underrepresented medical and nursing students. Acad Med. 95:758–763.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aggarwal S, Kheriaty A. 2018. Same behavior, different provider: American Medical Students’ attitudes toward reporting risky behaviors committed by doctors, nurses, and classmates. AJOB Empir Bioeth. 9(1):12–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alpert JB, Young MG, Lala SV, McGuinness G. 2021. Medical student engagement and educational value of a remote clinical radiology learning environment: creation of virtual read-out sessions in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Acad Radiol. 28(1):112–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alsan M, Wanamaker M. 2018. Tuskegee and the health of black men. Q J Econ. 133(1):407–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Association of American Medical Colleges. 2004. The status of the new AAMC definition of “underrepresented in medicine” following the Supreme Court’s decision in Grutter: 2.
   Google Scholar
• Babaria P, Bernheim S, Nunez-Smith M. 2011. Gender and the pre-clinical experiences of female medical students: a taxonomy. Med Educ. 45(3):249–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batty D. 2020. BAME trainee doctors in “climate of fear” over racism. Guard.
   Google Scholar
• Bowen EA, Murshid NS. 2016. Trauma-informed social policy: a conceptual framework for policy analysis and advocacy. Am J Public Health. 106(2):223–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr PL, Ash AS, Friedman RH, Szalacha L, Barnett RC, Palepu A, Moskowitz MM. 2000. Faculty perceptions of gender discrimination and sexual harassment in academic medicine. Ann Intern Med. 132(11):889–896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou BRS, Feagin JR. 2011. The myth of the model minority: Asian Americans facing racism. Contemp Sociol A J Rev.
   Google Scholar
• Chung MP, Thang CK, Vermillion M, Fried JM, Uijtdehaage S. 2018. Exploring medical students' barriers to reporting mistreatment during clerkships: a qualitative study. Med Educ Online. 23(1):1478170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook DA, Levinson AJ, Garside S, Dupras DM, Erwin PJ, Montori VM. 2008. Internet-based learning in the health professions: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 300(10):1181–1196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cruess RL, Cruess SR, Boudreau JD, Snell L, Steinert Y. 2015. A schematic representation of the professional identity formation and socialization of medical students and residents: a guide for medical educators. Acad Med. 90(6):718–725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran V, Lockyer J, Sargeant J, Fleet L. 2006. Evaluation of learning outcomes in web-based continuing medical education. Acad Med. 81(10 Suppl.):30–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elnicki DM, Curry RH, Fagan M, Friedman E, Jacobson E, Loftus T, Ogden P, Pangaro L, Papadakis M, Szauter K, et al. 2002. Medical students’ perspectives on and responses to abuse during the internal medicine clerkship. Teach Learn Med. 14(2):92–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Espaillat A, Panna DK, Goede DL, Gurka MJ, Novak MA, Zaidi Z. 2019. An exploratory study on microaggressions in medical school: what are they and why should we care? Perspect Med Educ. 8(3):143–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans MK, Rosenbaum L, Malina D, Morrissey S, Rubin EJ. 2020. Diagnosing and treating systemic racism. N Engl J Med. 383(3):274–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman L, Stewart H. 2018. Microaggressions in clinical medicine. Kennedy Inst Ethics J. 28(4):411–449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried JM, Vermillion M, Parker NH, Uijtdehaage S. 2012. Eradicating medical student mistreatment: a longitudinal study of one institution's efforts. Acad Med. 87(9):1191–1198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J. 2011. Injustice at every turn a report of the national transgender discrimination survey. Minnesota: The National Center for Transgender Equality.
   Google Scholar
• Hafferty FW. 1998. Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine’s hidden curriculum. Acad Med. 73(4):403–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvard Medical School. 2017. 4.08 policy and procedures for consideration of unprofessional conduct. In: Harvard Medical School, editor. Harvard Medical School student Handbook. Boston (MA): Harvard Medical School.
   Google Scholar
• Harvard University. 2021. Speak up – anonymous reporting hotline. Boston (MA): Harvard University.
   Google Scholar
• Heiser S. 2017. More women than men enrolled in U.S. medical schools in 2017. AAMC.
   Google Scholar
• Hill E, Vaughan S. 2013. The only girl in the room: how paradigmatic trajectories deter female students from surgical careers. Med Educ. 47(6):547–556.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinze SW. 2004. “Am I being oversensitive?” Women’s experience of sexual harassment during medical training. Health. 8(1):101–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho CP, Chong A, Narayan A, Cooke EA, Deng F, Agarwal V, DeBenedectis CM, Deitte LA, Jay AK, Kagetsu NJ. 2020. Mitigating Asian American bias and xenophobia in response to the coronavirus pandemic: how you can be an upstander. J Am Coll Radiol. 17(12):1692–1694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu YY, Ellis RJ, Hewitt DB, Yang AD, Cheung EO, Moskowitz JT, Potts JR, Buyske J, Hoyt DB, Nasca TJ, et al. 2019. Discrimination, abuse, harassment, and burnout in surgical residency training. N Engl J Med. 381(18):1741–1752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones C. 2000. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a gardener's tale. Am J Public Health. 90(8):1212–1215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kmietowicz Z. 2020. Are medical schools turning a blind eye to racism? BMJ. 368:m420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez W, Etchegaray JM, Thomas EJ, Hickson GB, Lehmann LS, Schleyer AM, Best JA, Shelburne JT, May NB, Bell SK. 2015. ‘Speaking up’ about patient safety concerns and unprofessional behaviour among residents: validation of two scales. BMJ Qual Saf. 24(11):671–680.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell R, Cheng S, Jones C, Kaltman S, Marquez MT. 2018. Stop, Talk, Roll (STR) for medical students using this guide; p. 1–14. https://som.georgetown.edu/diversityandinclusion/stoptalkroll
   Google Scholar
• Montenegro RE. 2016. My name is not “interpreter”. JAMA. 315(19):2071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mostow C, Crosson J, Gordon S, Chapman S, Gonzalez P, Hardt E, Delgado L, James T, David M. 2010. Treating and precepting with RESPECT: a relational model addressing race, ethnicity, and culture in medical training. J Gen Intern Med. 25(S2):146–154.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadal KL, Wong Y, Griffin KE, Davidoff K, Sriken J. 2014. The adverse impact of racial microaggressions on college students’ self-esteem. J Coll Stud Dev. 55(5):461–474.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Doherty D, Dromey M, Lougheed J, Hannigan A, Last J, McGrath D. 2018. Barriers and solutions to online learning in medical education – an integrative review. BMC Med Educ. 18(1):1–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paul-Emile K, Smith AK, Lo B, Fernández A. 2016. Dealing with racist patients. N Engl J Med. 374(8):708–711.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Periyakoil VS, Chaudron L, Hill EV, Pellegrini V, Neri E, Kraemer HC. 2019. Common types of gender-based microaggressions in medicine. Acad Med. 95(3):1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez JE, Campbell KM, Pololi LH. 2015. Addressing disparities in academic medicine: what of the minority tax? BMC Med Educ. 15:6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandhaus Y, Kushnir T, Ashkenazi S. 2020. Electronic distance learning of pre-clinical studies during the COVID-19 pandemic: a preliminary study of medical student responses and potential future impact. Isr Med Assoc J. 22(8):489–493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandoval RS, Afolabi T, Said J, Dunleavy S, Chatterjee A, Ölveczky D. 2020. Building a tool kit for medical and dental students: addressing microaggressions and discrimination on the wards. MedEdPORTAL. 16:1–12.
   Google Scholar
• Sotto-Santiago S, Mac J, Duncan F, Smith J. 2020. "I Didn't Know What to Say": responding to racism, discrimination, and microaggressions with the OWTFD approach. MedEdPORTAL. 16:10971.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Srivastava R. 2013. Speaking up — when doctors navigate medical hierarchy. N Engl J Med. 368(4):302–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue DW, Capodilupo CM, Torino GC, Bucceri JM, Holder AMB, Nadal KL, Esquilin M. 2007. Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice. Am Psychol. 62(4):271–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas EG, Jayabalasingham B, Collins T, Geertzen J, Bui C, Dominici F. 2019. Gender disparities in invited commentary authorship in 2459 medical journals. JAMA Netw Open. 2(10):e1913682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres L, Driscoll MW, Burrow AL. 2010. Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly achieving African-Americans: a mixed-methods approach. J Soc Clin Psychol. 29(10):1074–1099.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres MB, Salles A, Cochran A. 2019. Recognizing and reacting to microaggressions in medicine and surgery. JAMA Surg. 154(9):868–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Ryn M, Burgess DJ, Dovidio JF, Phelan SM, Saha S, Malat J, Griffin JM, Fu SS, Perry S. 2011. The impact of racism on clinician cognition, behavior, and clinical decision making. Du Bois Rev. 8(1):199–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler DJ, Zapata J, Davis D, Chou C. 2018. Twelve tips for responding to microaggressions and overt discrimination: when the patient offends the learner. Med Teach. 41(10):1112–1117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler M, De Bourmont S, Paul-Emile K, Pfeffinger A, McMullen A, Critchfield JM, Fernandez A. 2019. Physician and trainee experiences with patient bias. JAMA Intern Med. 179(12):1678–1685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitgob EE, Blankenburg RL, Bogetz AL. 2016. The discriminatory patient and family: strategies to address discrimination towards trainees. Acad Med. 91:S64–S69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yardley S, Teunissen PW, Dornan T. 2012. Experiential learning: transforming theory into practice. Med Teach. 34(2):161–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young ME, Thomas A, Varpio L, Razack SI, Hanson MD, Slade S, Dayem KL, McKnight DJ. 2017. Facilitating admissions of diverse students: a six-point, evidence-informed framework for pipeline and program development. Perspect Med Educ. 6(2):82–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar