Review of methods of small‐footprint airborne laser scanning for extracting forest inventory data in boreal forests

References

• Ackermann , F. 1999 . Airborne laser scanning – present status and future expectations. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 54 : 64 – 67 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahokas , E. , Kaasalainen , S. , Hyyppä , J. and Suomalainen , J. 2006 . “ Calibration of the Optech ALTM 3100 laser scanner intensity data using brightness targets. ISPRS Commission I Symposium, 3–6 July 2006, Marne‐la‐Vallee, France. ” . In International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences Vol. 36 , A1, CD‐ROM
   Google Scholar
• Ahokas , E. , Kaartinen , H. , Matikainen , L. , Hyyppä , J. and Hyyppä , H. 2002 . “ Accuracy of high‐pulse‐rate laser scanners for digital target models. ” . In Observing our environment from space, new solutions for a new millennium, Proceedings of the 21st EARSeL Symposium , 175 – 178 . Paris : Balkema Publishers . 14–16 May 2001
   Google Scholar
• Ahokas , E. , Yu , X. , Oksanen , J. , Hyyppä , J. , Kaartinen , H. and Hyyppä , H. 2005 . “ Optimization of the scanning angle for countrywide laser scanning. ” . In Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2005 , Vol. XXXVI, 3/W19 , 115 – 119 . Netherlands : GITC bv . 12–14 September 2005, Enschede, The Netherlands
   Google Scholar
• Aldred , A. H. and Bonnor , G. M. 1985 . “ Application of airborne lasers to forest surveys. ” . 62 Information Report PI‐X‐51, Canadian Forestry Service, Petawawa National Forestry Institute
   Google Scholar
• Andersen , H.‐E. , Reutebuch , S. and Schreuder , G. 2002 . “ Bayesian object recognition for the analysis of complex forest scenes in airborne laser scanner data. ” . In International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences Vol. 34 , 35 – 41 . 3A
   Google Scholar
• Axelsson , P. 1999 . Processing of laser scanner data – algorithms and applications. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 54 : 138 – 147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelsson , P. 2000 . DEM generation from laser scanner data using adaptive TIN models. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 33 ( B4 ) : 110 – 117 .
   Google Scholar
• Axelsson , P. 2001 . “ Ground estimation of laser data using adaptive TIN models. ” . In Proceedings of OEEPE Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning and Interferometric SAR for Detailed Digital Elevation Models , Edited by: Torlegård , K and Nelson , J . 185 – 208 . Frankfurt : OEEPE . Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. Publication no. 40, CD‐ROM
   Google Scholar
• Baltsavias , E. P. 1999 . Airborne laser scanning: basic relations and formulas. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 54 : 199 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernard , R. , Vidal‐Madjar , D. , Baudin , F. and Laurent , G. 1987 . Nadir looking airborne radar and possible applications to forestry. . IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing , 21 : 297 – 309 .
   Google Scholar
• Bohlin , J. , Olsson , H. , Olofsson , K. and Wallerman , J. Tree species discrimination by aid of template matching applied to digital air photos. EARSeL SIG Forestry. International Workshop on 3D Remote Sensing in Forestry Proceedings . 14–15 February 2006 , Vienna. Edited by: Koukal , T and Schneider , W . pp. 210 – 214 . Vienna : University of Natural Resources and Applied Sciences . Available online at: http://www.rali.boku.ac.at/3drsforestry.html (accessed 20 November 2007)
   Google Scholar
• Bortolot , Z. J. 2006 . Using tree clusters to derive forest properties from small footprint ladar data. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 72 : 1389 – 1397 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandtberg , T. 1999 . “ Automatic individual tree‐based analysis of high spatial resolution remotely sensed data. ” . PhD Thesis, Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae, Silvestria 118, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• Brandtberg , T. 2002 . Individual tree‐based species classification in high spatial resolution aerial images of forests using fuzzy sets. . Fuzzy Sets and Systems , 132 : 371 – 387 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandtberg , T. and Walter , F. 1999 . “ An algorithm for delineation of individual tree crowns in high spatial resolution aerial images using curved edge segments at multiple scales. ” . In Proceedings of International Forum on Automated Interpretation of High Spatial Resolution Digital Imagery for Forestry Edited by: Hill , D. A and Leckie , D. G . 41 – 54 . 10–12 February 1998, Victoria, BC, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC
   Google Scholar
• Brandtberg , T. , Warner , T. , Landenberger , R. and McGraw , J. 2003 . Detection and analysis of individual leaf‐off tree crowns in small footprint, high sampling density lidar data from the eastern deciduous forest in North America. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 85 : 290 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chasmer , L. , Hopkinson , C. and Treitz , P. 2006 . Investigating laser pulse penetration through a conifer canopy by integrating airborne and terrestrial lidar. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 32 : 116 – 125 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crombaghs , M. , Oude Elberink , S. , Brügelmann , R. and de Min , E. 2002 . Assessing height precision of laser altimetry DEMs. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 34 ( 3A ) : 85 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• Culvenor , D. S. 2002 . “ TIDA: an algorithm for the delineation of tree crowns in high spatial resolution digital imagery of Australian native forest. ” . PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
   Google Scholar
• Currie , D. , Shaw , V. and Bercha , F. Integration of laser rangefinder and multispectral video data for forest measurements. 10–14 July 1989 , Vancouver, Canada. Proceedings of IGARSS'89 Conference , Vol. 4 , pp. 2382 – 2384 . Vancouver : IGARSS'89 Symposium .
   Google Scholar
• Drake , J. , Dubayah , R. , Knox , R. , Clark , D. and Blair , J. 2002 . Sensitivity of large‐footprint lidar to canopy structure and biomass in a neotropical rainforest. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 81 : 378 – 392 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dralle , K. and Rudemo , M. 1996 . Stem number estimation by kernel smoothing of aerial photos. . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 26 : 1228 – 1236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elmqvist , M. , Jungert , E. , Lantz , F. , Persson , Å. and Söderman , U. 2001 . Terrain modelling and analysis using laser scanner data. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 34 ( 3/W4 ) : 219 – 226 .
   Google Scholar
• Erikson , M. 2003 . Segmentation of individual tree crowns in colour aerial photographs using region growing supported by fuzzy rules. . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 33 : 1557 – 1563 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falkowski , M. J. , Smith , A. M. S. , Hudak , A. T. , Gessler , P. E. , Vierling , L. A. and Crookston , N. L. 2006 . Automated estimation of individual conifer tree height and crown diameter via two‐dimensional spatial wavelet analysis of lidar data. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 32 : 153 – 161 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedlaender , H. and Koch , B. First experience in the application of laser scanner data for the assessment of vertical and horizontal forest structures. ISPRS Congress . July 2000 , Amsterdam. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , Vol. XXXIII , pp. 693 – 700 .
   Google Scholar
• Gaveau , D. and Hill , R. 2003 . Quantifying canopy height underestimation by laser pulse penetration in small‐footprint airborne laser scanning data. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 29 : 650 – 657 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gobakken , T. and NÆsset , E. 2005 . Weibull and percentile models for lidar‐based estimation of basal area distribution. . Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research , 20 : 490 – 502 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin , N. R. , Coops , N. C. and Culvenor , D. S. 2006 . Assessment of forest structure with airborne LiDAR and the effects of platform altitude. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 103 : 140 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gougeon , F. A. 1995 . A crown‐following approach to the automatic delineation of individual tree crowns in high spatial resolution aerial images. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 21 : 274 – 284 .
   Google Scholar
• Gougeon , F. A. and Leckie , D. 2003 . “ Forest information extraction from high spatial resolution images using an individual tree crown approach. ” . 26 Information report BC‐X‐396, Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre
   Google Scholar
• Gougeon , F. A. and Moore , T. 1989 . Classification individuelle des arbres à partir d'images à haute résolution spatiale. . Télédétection et Gestion des Resources , VI : 185 – 196 .
   Google Scholar
• Gougeon , F. A. , St‐Onge , B. A. , Wulder , M. and Leckie , D. Synergy of airborne laser altimetry and digital videography for individual tree crown delineation. Proceedings of 23rd Canadian Symposium on Remote Sensing/10e Congrès de l'Association Québécoise de Télédétection , WRCan/RNCan : Canada . 21–24 August 2000, Sainte‐Foy, Québec, Canada, CD‐ROM
   Google Scholar
• Hall , S. A. , Burke , I. C. , Box , D. O. , Kaufmann , M. R. and Stoker , J. M. 2005 . Estimating stand structure using discrete‐return lidar: an example from low density, fire prone ponderosa pine forests. . Forest Ecology and Management , 208 : 189 – 209 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirata , Y. 2005 . “ Relationship between crown and growth of individual tree derived from multi‐temporal airborne laser scanner data. ” . Personal communication: oral presentation at Silviscan 2005, 29 September–1 October 2005, VT, Blacksburg, Virginia
   Google Scholar
• Hodgson , M. E. , Jensen , J. R. , Schmidt , L. , Schill , S. and Davis , B. 2003 . An evaluation of LIDAR‐ and IFSAR‐derived digital elevation models in leaf‐on conditions with USGS Level 1 and Level 2 DEMs. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 84 : 295 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollaus , M. 2006 . “ Large scale applications of airborne laser scanning for a complex mountaineous environment. ” . Dr. Ing. thesis, Vienna University of Technology, 111 p
   Google Scholar
• Holmgren , J. 2003 . “ Estimation of forest variables using airborne laser scanning. ” . PhD thesis, Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae, Silvestria 278, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• Holmgren , J. and Persson , Å. 2004 . Identifying species of individual trees using airborne laser scanning. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 90 : 415 – 423 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkinson , C. , Chasmer , L. , Lim , K. , Treitz , P. and Creed , I. 2006 . Towards a universal lidar canopy height indicator. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 32 : 139 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hugershoff , R. 1939 . Die Bildmessung unde ihre forstlichen Anwendungen. . Der Deutsche Forstwirt , 50 : 612 – 615 .
   Google Scholar
• Husch , B. , Miller , C. I. and Beers , T. W. 1982 . Forest Mensuration, 2nd edition , New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. 1993 . “ Development and feasibility of airborne ranging radar for forest assessment. ” . PhD thesis, Laboratory of Space Technology, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. and Inkinen , M. 1999 . Detecting and estimating attributes for single trees using laser scanner. . Photogrammetric Journal of Finland , 16 : 27 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. , Yu , X. , Hyyppä , H. and Maltamo , M. 2006 . “ Methods of airborne laser scanning for forest information extraction. EARSeL SIG Forestry. ” . In International Workshop 3D Remote Sensing in Forestry Proceedings , Edited by: Koukal , T and Schneider , W . 63 – 78 . Vienna : University of Natural Resources and Applied Sciences . Vienna, 14–15 February 2006
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. , Pyysalo , U. , Hyyppä , H. , Haggren , H. and Ruppert , G. 2000 . “ Accuracy of laser scanning for DTM generation in forested areas. ” . In Laser Radar and Applications V, Proceedings of SPIE Conference Edited by: Kamerman , G. W . Vol. 4035 , 119 – 130 .
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. , Yu , X. , Rönnholm , P. , Kaartinen , H. and Hyyppä , H. 2003b . Factors affecting object‐oriented forest growth estimates obtained using laser scanning. . Photogrammetric Journal of Finland , 18 : 16 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. , Hyyppä , H. , Maltamo , M. , Yu , X. , Ahokas , E. and Pyysalo , U. 2003a . “ Laser scanning of forest resources – some of the Finnish experience. ” . In Proceedings of the ScandLaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests , 53 – 59 . Sweden : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . 3–4 September 2003, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , H. , Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Kaartinen , H. , Honkavaara , E. and Rönnholm , P. 2005 . “ Factors affecting the quality of DTM generation in forested areas. ” . In Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2005 , Vol. XXXVI, 3/W19 , 85 – 90 . Netherlands : GITC bv . 12–14 September 2005, Enschede, Netherlands
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. , Mielonen , T. , Hyyppä , H. , Maltamo , M. , Yu , X. , Honkavaara , E. and Kaartinen , H. 2005 . “ Using individual tree crown approach for forest volume extraction with aerial images and laser point clouds. ” . In Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop Laser Scanning 2005 , Vol. XXXVI, 3/W19 , 144 – 149 . Netherlands : GITC bv . 12–14 September 2005, Enschede, Netherlands
   Google Scholar
• Hyyppä , J. , Schardt , M. , Haggrén , H. , Koch , B. , Lohr , U. , Scherrer , H. U. , Paananen , R. , Luukkonen , H. , Ziegler , M. , Hyyppä , H. , Pyysalo , U. , Friedländer , H. , Uuttera , J. , Wagner , S. , Inkinen , M. , Wimmer , A. , Kukko , A. , Ahokas , E. and Karjalainen , M. 2001 . HIGH‐SCAN: the first European‐wide attempt to derive single‐tree information from laserscanner data. . Photogrammetric Journal of Finland , 17 : 58 – 68 .
   Google Scholar
• Kraus , K. and Pfeifer , N. 1998 . Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and RemoteSensing , 53 : 193 – 203 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen , M. and Rudemo , M. 1998 . Optimizing templates for finding trees in aerial photographs. . Pattern Recognition Letters , 19 : 1153 – 1162 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leckie , D. , Gougeon , F. , Hill , D. , Quinn , R. , Armstrong , L. and Shreenan , R. 2003 . Combined high‐density lidar and multispectral imagery for individual tree crown analysis. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 29 : 633 – 649 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefsky , M. , Cohen , W. , Parker , G. and Harding , D. 2002 . Lidar remote sensing for ecosystem studies. . Bioscience , 52 : 19 – 30 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefsky , M. , Cohen , W. , Acker , S. , Parker , G. , Spies , T. and Harding , D. 1999 . Lidar remote sensing of the canopy structure and biophysical properties of Douglas‐fir western hemlock forests. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 70 : 339 – 361 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang , X. , Hyyppä , J. and Matikainen , L. 2007 . “ First‐last pulse signatures of airborne laser scanning for tree species classification, Deciduous–coniferous tree classification using difference between first and last pulse laser signatures. ” . In Proceedings of the ISPRS workshop, Laser Scanning 2007 and Silvilaser 2007 253 – 257 . 12–14 September, Espoo, Finland
   Google Scholar
• Lim , K. , Treitz , P. , Baldwin , K. , Morrison , I. and Green , J. 2002 . Lidar remote sensing of biophysical properties of northern tolerant hardwood forests. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 29 : 658 – 678 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim , K. , Treitz , P. , Wulder , M. , St.Onge , B. and Flood , M. 2003 . LIDAR remote sensing of forest structure. . Progress in Physical Geography , 27 : 88 – 106 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maclean , G. 1982 . “ Timber volume estimation using cross‐sectional photogrammetric and densitometric methods. ” . MSc Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
   Google Scholar
• Maclean , G. and Krabill , W. 1986 . Gross‐merchantable timber volume estimation using an airborne lidar system. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 12 : 7 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Magnussen , S. and Boudewyn , P. 1998 . Derivations of stand heights from airborne laser scanner data with canopy‐based quantile estimators. . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 28 : 1016 – 1031 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnussen , S. , Eggermont , P. and Lariccia , V. N. 1999 . Recovering tree heights from airborne laser scanner data. . Forest Science , 45 : 407 – 422 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltamo , M. , Eerikäinen , K. , Packalen , P. and Hyyppä , J. 2006a . Estimation of stem volume using laser scanning‐based canopy height metrics. . Forestry , 79 : 217 – 229 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltamo , M. , Malinen , J. , Packalen , P. , Suvanto , A. and Kangas , J. 2006b . Nonparametric estimation of stem volume using airborne laser scanning, aerial photography, and stand‐register data. . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 36 : 426 – 436 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltamo , M. , Mustonen , K. , Hyyppä , J. , Pitkänen , J. and Yu , X. 2004 . The accuracy of estimating individual tree variables with airborne laser scanning in boreal nature reserve. . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 34 : 1791 – 1801 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltamo , M. , Packalén , P. , Yu , X. , Eerikäinen , K. , Hyyppä , J. and Pitkänen , J. 2005 . Identifying and quantifying structural characteristics of heterogeneous boreal forests using laser scanner data. . Forest Ecology and Management , 216 : 41 – 50 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Means , J. , Acker , S. , Harding , D. , Blair , J. , Lefsky , M. , Cohen , W. , Harmon , M. and McKee , A. 1999 . Use of large‐footprint scanning airborne lidar to estimate forest stand characteristics in the western cascades of Oregon. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 67 : 298 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffiet , T. , Mengersen , K. , Witte , C. , King , R. and Denham , R. 2005 . Airborne laser scanning: exploratory data analysis indicates potential variables for classification of individual trees or forest stands according to species. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 59 : 289 – 309 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morsdorf , F. , Meier , E. , Allgöwer , B. and Nüesch , D. 2003 . Clustering in airborne laser scanning raw data for segmentation of single trees. . International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , 34 ( 3/W13 ) : 27 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. 1997a . Determination of mean tree height of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 52 : 49 – 56 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. 1997b . Estimating timber volume of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 61 : 246 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. 2002 . Predicting forest stand characteristics with airborne scanning laser using a practical two‐stage procedure and field data. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 80 : 88 – 99 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. 2003 . “ Laser scanning of forest resources – the Norwegian experience. ” . In Proceedings of the ScandLaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests , 35 – 42 . Sweden : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . 3–4 September 2003, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. 2004 . Effects of different flying altitudes on biophysical stand properties estimated from canopy height and density measured with a small‐footprint airborne scanning laser. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 91 : 243 – 255 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. and Gobakken , T. 2005 . Estimating forest growth using canopy metrics derived from airborne laser scanner data. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 96 : 453 – 465 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. and Økland , T. 2002 . Estimating tree height and tree crown properties using airborne scanning laser in a boreal nature reserve. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 79 : 105 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NÆsset , E. , Gobakken , T. , Holmgren , J. , Hyyppä , H. , Hyyppä , J. , Maltamo , M. , Nilsson , M. , Olsson , H. , Persson , Å. and Söderman , U. 2004 . Laser scanning of forest resources: the Nordic experience. . Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research , 19 : 482 – 499 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , R. , Krabill , W. and Maclean , G. 1984 . Determining forest canopy characteristics using airborne laser data. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 15 : 201 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , R. , Krabill , W. and Tonelli , J. 1988 . Estimating forest biomass and volume using airborne laser data. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 24 : 247 – 267 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , R. , Oderwald , R. and Gregoire , T. 1997 . Separating the ground and airborne laser sampling phases to estimate tropical forest basal area, volume, and biomass. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 60 : 311 – 326 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson , M. 1990 . “ Forest inventory using an airborne LIDAR system. ” . In Proceedings of SNS/IUFRO Workshop in Umeå , 133 – 139 . Umeå : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . Remote Sensing Laboratory, Report 4, 26–28 February 1990
   Google Scholar
• Nilsson , M. 1996 . Estimation of tree heights and stand volume using an airborne lidar system. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 56 : 1 – 7 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson , M. , Brandtberg , T. , Hagner , O. , Holmgren , J. , Persson , Å. , Steinvall , O. , Sterner , H. , Söderman , U. and Olsson , H. 2003 . “ Laser scanning of forest resources – the Swedish experience. ” . In Proceedings of the ScandLaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests , 43 – 52 . Sweden : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . 3–4 September 2003, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• Packalén , P. and Maltamo , M. 2006 . Predicting the volume by tree species using airborne laser scanning and aerial photographs. . Forest Science , 52 : 611 – 622 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson , Å. , Holmgren , J. and Söderman , U. 2002 . Detecting and measuring individual trees using an airborne laser scanner. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 925 – 932 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persson , Å. , Holmgren , J. and Söderman , U. 2006 . “ Identification of tree species of individual trees by combining very high resolution laser data with multi‐spectral images. EARSeL SIG Forestry. ” . In International Workshop on 3D Remote Sensing in Forestry Proceedings , Edited by: Koukal , T and Schneider , W . 102 – 107 . Vienna : University of Natural Resources and Applied Sciences . 14–15 February 2006, Vienna
   Google Scholar
• Persson , Å. , Holmgren , J. , Söderman , U. and Olsson , H. 2004 . Tree species classification of individual trees in Sweden by combining high resolution laser data with high resolution near infrared digital images. International Conference NATSCAN ‘Laser‐Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessment – Instruments, Processing Methods and Applications’, 3–6 October 2004, Freiburg, Germany. . International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , XXXVI ( 8/W2 ) : 204 – 207 .
   Google Scholar
• Persson , Å. , Söderman , U. , Töpel , J. and Ahlberg , S. 2005 . “ Visualization and analysis of full‐waveform airborne laser scanner data. ” . In Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2005 , Vol. XXXVI, 3/W19 , 103 – 108 . Netherlands : GITC bv . 12–14 September 2005, Enschede, The Netherlands
   Google Scholar
• Pinz , A. J. 1991 . “ A computer vision system for the recognition of trees in aerial photographs. Multisource data integration in remote sensing. ” . In NASA Conference Publication , Vol. 3099 , 111 – 124 . Bethesda, , Maryland : IEEE and Goddard Space Center .
   Google Scholar
• Pitkänen , J. , Maltamo , M. , Hyyppä , J. and Yu , X. 2004 . Adaptive methods for invidual tree detection on airborne laser based height model. International Conference NATSCAN ‘Laser‐Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessment – Instruments, Processing Methods and Applications’, 3–6 October 2004, Freiburg, Germany. . International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , XXXVI ( 8/W2 ) : 187 – 191 .
   Google Scholar
• Pollock , R. J. A model‐based approach to automatically locating individual tree crowns in high‐resolution images of forest canopies. Proceedings of First International Airborne Remote Sensing Conference and Exhibition , Vol. III , pp. 357 – 369 . Ann Arbor : ERIM . 11–15 September 1994, Strasbourg, France
   Google Scholar
• Popescu , S. , Wynne , R. and Nelson , R. 2003 . Measuring individual tree crown diameter with lidar and assessing its influence on estimating forest volume and biomass. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 29 : 564 – 577 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pouliot , D. A. , King , D. J. , Bell , F. W. and Pitt , D. G. 2002 . Automated tree crown detection and delineation in high‐resolution digital camera imagery of coniferous forest regeneration. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 82 : 322 – 334 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyysalo , U. 2000 . “ Generation of elevation models in wooded areas from a three dimensional point cloud measured by laser scanning. ” . MSc thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
   Google Scholar
• Raber , G. T. , Jensen , J. R. , Schill , S. R. and Schuckman , K. 2002a . Creation of digital terrain models using an adaptive Lidar vegetation point removal process. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 68 : 1307 – 1315 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raber , G. T. , Hodgson , M. E. , Jensen , J. R. , Tullis , J. A. , Thompson , G. , Davis , B. and Schuckman , K. 2002b . “ Comparison of LIDAR data collected leaf‐on versus leaf‐off for the creation of digital elevation models. ” . In Proceedings of the ASPRS 2002 Annual Convention , Bethesda, , Maryland : ASPRS . 19–26 April 2002, Washington, DC, CD‐ROM
   Google Scholar
• Reitberger , J. , Krzystek , P. and Heurich , M. 2006 . “ Full‐waveform analysis of small footprint airborne laser scanning data in the Bavarian forest national park for tree species classification. ” . In International Workshop on 3D Remote Sensing in Forestry Proceedings , Edited by: Koukal , T and Schneider , W . 218 – 227 . Vienna : University of Natural Resources and Applied Sciences . 14–15 February 2006, Vienna
   Google Scholar
• Reutebuch , S. , McGaughey , R. , Andersen , H. and Carson , W. 2003 . Accuracy of a high‐resolution lidar terrain model under a conifer forest canopy. . Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing , 29 : 527 – 535 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riaño , D. , Meier , E. , Allgöwer , B. , Chuvieco , E. and Ustin , S. 2003 . Modeling airborne laser scanning data for the spatial generation of critical forest parameters in fire behavior modelling. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 86 : 177 – 186 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rönnholm , P. , Hyyppä , J. , Hyyppä , H. , Haggrén , H. , Yu , X. , Pyysalo , U. , Pöntinen , P. and Kaartinen , H. 2004 . Calibration of laser‐derived tree height estimates by means of photogrammetric techniques. . Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research , 19 : 524 – 528 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreier , H. , Lougheed , J. , Tucker , C. and Leckie , D. 1985 . Automated measurements of terrain reflection and height variations using airborne infrared laser system. . International Journal of Remote Sensing , 6 : 101 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sithole , G. 2001 . Filtering of laser altimetry data using a slope adaptive filter. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 34 ( 3/W4 ) : 203 – 210 .
   Google Scholar
• Sithole , G. and Vosselman , G. 2004 . Experimental comparison of filter algorithms for bare‐earth extraction from airborne laser scanning point clouds. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 59 : 85 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sohlberg , S. , NÆsset , E. and Bollandsas , O. 2006 . Single tree segmentation using airborne laser scanner data in a structurally heterogeneous spruce forest. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 72 : 1369 – 1378 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solodukhin , V. , Zukov , A. and Mazugin , I. 1977 . Possibilities of laser aerial photography for forest profiling. . Lesnoe Khozyaisto (Forest Management) , 10 : 53 – 58 . (in Russian)
   Google Scholar
• Steinvall , O. 2003 . “ Laser systems for vegetation and terrain mapping – a look at present and future technologies and capabilities. ” . In Proceedings of the ScandLaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests , 9 – 20 . Sweden : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . 3–4 September 2003, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• St‐Onge , B. 1999 . Estimating individual tree heights of the boreal forest using airborne laser altimetry and digital videography. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 32 ( 3/W14 ) : 179 – 184 .
   Google Scholar
• St‐Onge , B. and Vepakomma , U. 2004 . Assessing forest gap dynamics and growth using multitemporal laser scanner data. International Conference NATSCAN ‘Laser‐Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessment – Instruments, Processing Methods and Applications’, 3–6 October 2004, Freiburg, Germany. . International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , XXXVI ( 8/W2 ) : 173 – 178 .
   Google Scholar
• St‐Onge , B. , Jumelet , J. , Cobelli , M. and Véga , C. 2004 . Measuring individual tree height using a combination of stereophotogrammetry and lidar. . Canadian Journal of Forest Research , 34 : 2122 – 2130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straub , B. 2003 . “ A top‐down operator for the automatic extraction of trees – concept and performance evaluation. ” . In Proceedings of the ISPRS Working Group III/3 Workshop 3‐D Reconstruction from Airborne Laser Scanner and InSAR data , 34 – 39 . Tu Dresden : Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing . 8–10 October 2003, Dresden, Germany
   Google Scholar
• Suarez , J. C. , Ontiveros , C. , Smith , S. and Snape , S. 2005 . Use of airborne LiDAR and aerial photography in the estimation of individual tree heights in forestry. . Computers and Geosciences , 31 : 253 – 262 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takeda , H. 2004 . Ground surface estimation in dense forest. . International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , 35 ( B3 ) : 1016 – 1023 .
   Google Scholar
• Tiede , D. and Hoffman , C. 2006 . “ Process oriented object‐based algorithms for single tree detection using laser scanning. EARSeL SIG Forestry. ” . In International Workshop 3D Remote Sensing in Forestry Proceedings , Edited by: Koukal , T and Schneider , W . Vienna : University of Natural Resources and Applied Sciences . 14–15 February 2006, Vienna
   Google Scholar
• TopoSys . 1996 . Digital Elevation Models, Services and Products Available online at: http://www.toposys.de (accessed 15 September 2000)
   Google Scholar
• Uuttera , J. , Haara , A. , Tokola , T. and Maltamo , M. 1998 . Determination of the spatial distribution of trees from digital aerial photographs. . Forest Ecology and Management , 110 : 275 – 282 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villikka , M. , Maltamo , M. , Packalén , P. , Vehmas , M. and Hyyppä , J. 2007 . “ Alternatives for predicting tree level stem volume of Norway spruce trees using airborne laser scanner data. ” . Submitted
   Google Scholar
• Vosselman , G. 2000 . Slope based filtering of laser altimetry data. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 33 ( B3/2 ) : 935 – 942 .
   Google Scholar
• Vosselman , G. and Maas , H.‐G. 2001 . “ Adjustment and filtering of raw laser altimetry data. ” . In Proceedings of OEEPE Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning and Interferometric SAR for Detailed Digital Elevation Models Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, paper 5
   Google Scholar
• Wack , R. and Wimmer , A. 2002 . Digital terrain models from airborne laser scanner data – a grid based approach. . International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 35 ( 3B ) : 293 – 296 .
   Google Scholar
• Wack , R. , Schardt , M. , Lohr , U. , Barrucho , L. and Oliveira , T. 2003 . Forest inventory for Eucalyptus plantations based on airborne laser scanner data. . International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , 34 ( 3/W13 ) : 40 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Wagner , W. , Ullrich , A. , Melzer , T. , Briese , C. and Kraus , K. 2004 . From single‐pulse to full‐waveform airborne laser scanners: potential and practical challenges. . International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , 35 ( B3 ) : 201 – 206 .
   Google Scholar
• Wehr , A. and Lohr , U. 1999 . Airborne laser scanning – an introduction and overview. . ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , 54 : 68 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wever , C. and Lindenberger , J. 1999 . “ Experiences of 10 years laser scanning. ” . In Photogrammetric Week ′99 , Edited by: Fritsch , D and Spiller , R . 125 – 132 . Heidelberg : Wichmann .
   Google Scholar
• Wulder , M. 2003 . “ The current status of laser scanning of forests in Canada and Australia. ” . In Proceedings of the ScandLaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests , 21 – 33 . Sweden : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . 3–4 September 2003, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• Wulder , M. , Niemann , K. O. and Goodenough , D. 2000 . Local maximum filtering for the extraction of tree locations and basal area from high spatial resolution imagery. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 73 : 103 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Hyyppä , H. and Maltamo , M. Effects of flight altitude on tree height estimation using airborne laser scanning. International Conference NATSCAN ‘Laser‐Scanners for Forest and Landscape Assessment – Instruments, Processing Methods and Applications’, 3–6 October 2004, Freiburg, Germany. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences , Vol. XXXVI , pp. 96 – 101 .
   Google Scholar
• Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Kaartinen , H. and Maltamo , M. 2004b . Automatic detection of harvested trees and determination of forest growth using airborne laser scanning. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 90 : 451 – 462 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Kaartinen , H. , Maltamo , M. and Hyyppä , H. 2007 . Obtaining plotwise mean height and volume growth in boreal forests using multitemporal laser surveys and various change detection techniques. . International Journal of Remote Sensing , 29 : 1367 – 1386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Kukko , A. , Maltamo , M. and Kaartinen , H. 2006 . Change detection techniques for canopy height growth measurements using airborne laser scanner data. . Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing , 72 : 1339 – 1348 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Kaartinen , H. , Hyyppä , H. , Maltamo , M. and Rönnholm , P. 2005 . “ Measuring the growth of individual trees using multitemporal airborne laser scanning point clouds. ” . In Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2005 , Vol. XXXVI, 3/W19 , 204 – 208 . Netherlands : GITC bv . 12–14 September 2005, Enschede, Netherlands
   Google Scholar
• Yu , X. , Hyyppä , J. , Rönnholm , P. , Kaartinen , H. , Maltamo , M. and Hyyppä , H. 2003 . “ Detection of harvested trees and estimation of forest growth using laser scanning. ” . In Proceedings of the Scandlaser Scientific Workshop on Airborne Laser Scanning of Forests , 115 – 124 . Sweden : Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . 3–4 September 2003, Umeå, Sweden
   Google Scholar
• Ziegler , M. , Konrad , H. , Hofrichter , J. , Wimmer , A. , Ruppert , G. , Schardt , M. and Hyyppä , J. 2000 . Assessment of forest attributes and single‐tree segmentation by means of laser scanning. . Laser Radar Technology and Applications V , 4035 : 73 – 84 .
   Google Scholar
• Zimble , D. A. , Evans , D. L. , Carlson , G. C. , Parker , R. C. , Grado , S. C. and Gerard , P. D. 2003 . Characterizing vertical forest structure using small‐footprint airborne LiDAR. . Remote Sensing of Environment , 87 : 171 – 182 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar