Bibliography
- Adam, I., and T. Caponio. 2018. “Research on the Multi-Level Governance of Migration and Migrant Integration.” In The Routledge Handbook of the Politics of Migration in Europe, edited by A. Weinar, S. Bonjour, and L. Zhyznomirs. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315512853-3
- Adamson, F., and G. Tsourapas. 2019. “Migration Diplomacy in World Politics.” International Studies Perspectives 20 (2): 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1093/isp/eky015
- Al-Arabi, A. 2018. “Local Specificities of Migration in Libya: Challenges and Solutions.” RSC Policy Briefs 2018/04. https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/52585
- Amnesty International. 2017. “Libya’s Dark Web of Collusion: Abuses Against Europe-Bound Refugees and Migrants.” https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde19/7561/2017/en/
- Amnesty International. 2021. “‘No One Will Look for You’: Forcibly Returned from Sea to Abusive Detention in Libya.” https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde19/4439/2021/en/
- Amnesty International. 2022. “Libya/EU: Conditions Remain ‘Hellish’ as EU Marks 5 Years of Cooperation Agreements.” https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/01/libya-eu-conditions-remain-hellish-as-eu-marks-5-years-of-cooperation-agreements/
- Banks, N., M. Lombard, and D. Mitlin. 2020. “Urban Informality as a Site of Critical Analysis.” The Journal of Development Studies 56 (2): 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2019.1577384
- Bartels, I. 2019. “Money Against Migration.” The EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa. https://eu.boell.org/sites/default/files/money_against_migration.pdf
- BBC News. 2017. “Migrant Crisis: EU Leaders Agree Plan to Stop Libya Influx.” February 3. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-38850380
- Becucci, S. 2020. “The Smuggling of Migrants from Libyan Shores to Italy: Changes after the End of the Gaddafi Dictatorship.” Quaderni di Sociologia 84 (84- LXIV): 117–136. https://doi.org/10.4000/qds.4193
- Bello, V. 2022. “Introduction: The Spiralling of the Securitisation of Migration in the EU: From the Management of a ‘Crisis’ to a Governance of Human Mobility?” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48 (6): 1327–1344. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1851464
- Bonfiglio, A. 2011. “New Approaches for Researching the Determinants of Migration Processes: ESF Strategic Workshop on Migration Research.” Workshop Report. https://www.migrationinstitute.org/publications/new-approaches-for-researching-the-determinants-of-migration-processes-esf-strategic-workshop-on-migration-research
- Börzel, T. A. 2020. “Multilevel Governance or Multilevel Government?” The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 22 (4):776–783. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148120939872
- Brito, R., F. Jordans, and L. Cook. 2022. “Migrant Abuses Continue in Libya. So Does EU Border Training.” AP News. January 22. https://apnews.com/article/coronavirus-pandemic-business-health-libya-migration-a30dd342513aeeede5a7558de4c3089d
- Campomori, F., and M. Ambrosini. 2020. “Multilevel Governance in Trouble: The Implementation of Asylum Seekers’ Reception in Italy as a Battleground.” Comparative Migration Studies 8 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00178-1
- Capasso, M., J. Czerep, A. Dessi, and G. Sanchez. 2019. “Libya Country Report.” December 2019. EULISTCO Project. https://www.cidob.org/en/publications/publication_series/project_papers/eu_listco/libya_country_report
- Caponio, T., and M. Jones-Correa. 2018. “Introduction: Theorising Migration Policy in Multilevel States: The Multilevel Governance Perspective.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 44 (12):1995–2010. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1341705
- Caponio, T. 2022. Making Sense of the Multilevel Governance of Migration City Networks Facing Global Mobility Challenges. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature.
- Cardwell, P. J., and R. Dickson. 2023. “‘Formal Informality’ in EU External Migration Governance: The Case of Mobility Partnerships.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (12): 3121–3139. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2023.2193743
- Creta, S. 2021. “Libya Fails to Stop Migrant Detention Abuses, as EU-Backed Returns Soar.” https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2021/6/24/libya-fails-to-stop-migrant-detention-abuses-as-eu-backed-returns-soar#:∼:text=“We%20are%20opening%20centres%20in,in%20an%20interview%20last%20December
- Cusumano, E., and M. Riddervold. 2023. “Failing through: European Migration Governance across the Central Mediterranean.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 49 (12): 3024–3042. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2023.2193713
- Dimitriadis, I., M. Hajer, E. Fontanari, and M. Ambrosini. 2021. “Local “Battlegrounds”. Relocating Multi-Level and Multi-Actor Governance of Immigration.” Revue européenne des migrations internationales 37 (1-2): 251–275. https://doi.org/10.4000/remi.18552
- Eaton, T. 2018. “Libya’s War Economy Predation, Profiteering and State Weakness.” https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2018-04-12-libyas-war-economy-eaton-final.pdf
- EU Agenda. 2021. “Emergency Trust Fund for Africa (EUTF).” https://euagenda.eu/upload/publications/factsheet-eutf-en.pdf
- European Council. 2017. “Malta Declaration by the Members of the European Council on the External Aspects of Migration: Addressing the Central Mediterranean Route.” February 3. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/02/03/malta-declaration/
- European Council. 2023. “Migration Flows on the Central Mediterranean Route.” February 9. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/eu-migration-policy/central-mediterranean-route/
- European Council on Refugees and Exiles. 2022. “Med: Tragedy Continues as Routes Change and Situation in Libya Deteriorates Even Further.” ECRE Weekly. https://ecre.org/med-tragedy-continues-as-routes-changes-and-situation-in-libya-deteriorates-even-further/
- European Parliament. 2019. “Situation of Migrants in Detention Centres in Libya and of Migrants Returned by the Libyan Coastguard – Possible Solutions?: Extracts from the Debate.” https://multimedia.europarl.europa.eu/en/video/situation-migrants-in-detention-centres-in-libya_I180858
- Farrah, R. 2021. “Zuwara’s Civil Society Fight Against Organized Crime: Successes and Failures of Local Community Efforts.” https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Zuwara-PB-web.pdf
- Fitzgerald, M., and N. Wilson. 2021. “Young and Angry in Fezzan: Achieving Stability in Southern Libya through Greater Economic Opportunity.” USIP Peace Works. November 22. https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2021-11/pw_180-young_and_angry_in_fezzan_achieving_stability_in_southern_libya_through_greater_economic_opportunity.pdf
- Global Detention Project. 2022. 18 February 2022 – Libya. https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/18-february-2022-libya
- Gunn, A. 2012. “Policy Paper Immigration and Multi-Level Governance in Canada and Europe: The Role of Municipalities as Integration ‘Policy Innovators’.” https://carleton.ca/canadaeurope/wp-content/uploads/2012-12-paper-gunn-uvic-immigrantintegration-municipalities.pdf
- Hackett, S. E. 2015. “The ‘Local Turn’ in Historical Perspective: Two City Case Studies in Britain and Germany.” International Review of Administrative Sciences 83 (2): 340–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208523155924
- Hayden, S. 2022. My Fourth Time, We Drowned: Seeking Refuge on the World’s Deadliest Migration Route. Brooklyn and London: Melville House.
- Hendawi, H. 2023. “Libya’s Rival Factions Agree in Cairo to Work towards ‘Constitutional Base’ for Settlement.” The National News. https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/01/05/libyas-rival-factions-agree-in-cairo-to-work-towards-constitutional-base-for-settlement/
- Horak, M., and R. Young. 2012. Sites of Governance: Multilevel Governance and Policy Making in Canada’s Big Cities. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
- Human Rights Watch. 2019. “No Escape from Hell EU Policies Contribute to Abuse of Migrants in Libya.” January 21. https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/01/21/no-escape-hell/eu-policies-contribute-abuse-migrants-libya
- Human Rights Watch. 2023. “World Report 2023: Libya.” https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/libya
- Johnstone, H., and D. Naish. 2020. “Can Libya’s Migrant-Detention System be Reformed?” Global Initiative against Transnational Crime. https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/libya-dcs-reform/
- Kalush, R. 2020. “Migration beyond the Crisis: Libyan Policy and Practice.” In Unheard Voices of the Next Generation: Emergent Leaders in Libya, edited by N. Kirkesh, S. Toperich, and A. Abusedra, 3–11. Washington: Brookings Institution Press.
- Kasfir, N., G. Frerks, and N. Terpstra. 2017. “Introduction: Armed Groups and Multi-Layered Governance.” Civil Wars 19 (3):257–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2017.1419611
- Kaunert, C. 2012. “Conclusion: “Assessing the External Dimension of EU Counter-Terrorism – Ten Years On”.” European Security 21 (4): 578–587. https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2012.688810
- Kuschminder, K. 2021. “Before Disembarkation: Eritrean and Nigerian Migrants Journeys within Africa.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47 (14): 3260–3275. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1804192
- Kuschminder, K., and A. Triandafyllidou. 2019. “Smuggling, Trafficking and Extortion: New Conceptual and Policy Challenges on the Libyan Route to Europe.” Antipode 52 (1): 206–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12579
- Lavenex, S. 2016. “Multilevelling EU External Governance: The Role of International Organizations in the Diffusion of EU Migration Policies.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42 (4): 554–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1102047
- Léonard, S., and C. Kaunert. 2019. Refugees, Security and the European Union. London: Routledge.
- Léonard, S., and C. Kaunert. 2022. “De-Centring the Securitisation of Asylum and Migration in the European Union: Securitisation, Vulnerability and the Role of Turkey.” Geopolitics 27 (3): 729–751. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2021.1929183
- Liesbet, H., and M. Gary. 2003. “Unravelling the Central State, but How? Types of Multi-Level Governance.” American Political Science Review 97 (02): 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000649
- Micallef, M., and T. Reitano. 2017. “The Anti-Human Smuggling Business and Libya’s Political End Game.” Institute for Security Studies and The Global Initiative against Transnational Organised Crime. North Africa Report 2. https://globalinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Libya_ISS_Smuggling.pdf
- Michael, M., L. Hinnant, and R. Brito. 2019. Making Misery Pay: Libya Militias Take EU Funds for Migrants. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/united-nations-tripoli-ap-top-news-international-news-immigration-9d9e8d668ae4b73a336a636a86bdf27f
- MSF. 2022. “Italy-Libya Agreement: Five Years of EU-Sponsored Abuse in Libya and the Central Mediterranean.” https://www.msf.org/italy-libya-agreement-five-years-eu-sponsored-abuse-libya-and-central-mediterranean
- Müller, P., and P. Slominski. 2021. “Breaking the Legal Link but Not the Law? The Externalization of EU Migration Control through Orchestration in the Central Mediterranean.” Journal of European Public Policy 28 (6): 801–820. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2020.1751243
- OHCHR. 2022. “Nowhere but Back: Migrants in Libya Compelled to Accept ‘Voluntary’ Return.” https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-12/Report-on-assisted-return-and-reintegration.pdf
- Pacciardi, A., and J. Berndtsson. 2022. “EU Border Externalisation and Security Outsourcing: Exploring the Migration Industry in Libya.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48 (17): 4010–4028. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2022.2061930
- Panebianco, S. 2022a. “The EU and Migration in the Mediterranean: EU Borders’ Control by Proxy.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 48 (6): 1398–1416. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1851468
- Panebianco, S. 2022b. “Human Security at the Mediterranean Borders: Humanitarian Discourse in the EU Periphery.” International Politics 59 (3): 428–448. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-021-00316-1
- Panizzon, M., and M. van Riemsdijk. 2019. “Introduction to Special Issue: ‘Migration Governance in an Era of Large Movements: A Multi-Level Approach.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45 (8):1225–1241. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1441600
- Polat, R. K., and V. Lowndes. 2022. “How Does Multi-Level Governance Create Capacity to Address Refugee Needs, and with What Limitations? An Analysis of Municipal Responses to Syrian Refugees in Istanbul.” Journal of Refugee Studies 35 (1): 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feab101
- Polese, A. 2021. “What is Informality? (Mapping) ‘the Art of Bypassing the State’.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 64 (3): 322–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2021.1992791
- Şahin-Mencütek, Z., S. Barthoma, N. E. Gökalp-Aras, and A. Triandafyllidou. 2021. “Global Migration: Consequences and Responses. Governance of Migration in and through Crisis: A Comparative Report on RESPOND Research.” Working OPaper 2021/77. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1536368/FULLTEXT01.pdf
- Sanchez, G. 2020. “Beyond Militias and Tribes: The Facilitation of Migration in Libya.” EUI Working Paper RSCAS 2020/09. https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/66186/RSCAS_2020_09.pdf
- Scholten, P., and R. Penninx. 2016. “The Multilevel Governance of Migration and Integration.” In Integration Processes and Policies in Europe, edited by B. Garcés-Mascareñas and R. Penninx, 91–108. IMISCOE Research Series. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21674-4_6
- Scipion, M. 2018. “Failing Forward in EU Migration Policy? EU Integration after the 2015 Asylum and Migration Crisis.” Journal of European Public Policy 25 (9): 1357–1375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1325920
- Stel, N. 2021. “Uncertainty, Exhaustion, and Abandonment beyond South/North Divides: Governing Forced Migration through Strategic Ambiguity.” Political Geography 88: 102391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102391
- Tošić, J., and A. Lems. 2019. “African-European Trajectories of Im/Mobility: Exploring Entanglements of Experiences, Legacies, and Regimes of Contemporary Migration.” Migration and Society 2 (1): 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3167/arms.2019.020102
- Tranchina, G. 2023. “Italy Reups Funding to Force Migrants Back to Libya.” https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/01/italy-reups-funding-force-migrants-back-libya
- Traynor, I. 2010. “EU Keen to Strike Deal with Muammar Gaddafi on Immigration.” The Guardian, September 1. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/01/eu-muammar-gaddafi-immigration
- Triandafyllidou, A. 2014. “Multi-Levelling and Externalizing Migration and Asylum: Lessons from the Southern European Islands.” Island Studies Journal 9 (1): 7–22. https://doi.org/10.24043/isj.290
- Triandafyllidou, A., and A. Ricard-Guay. 2019. “Governing Irregular and Return Migration in the 2020s: European Challenges and Asian Pacific Perspectives.” Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 17 (2):115–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2018.1503383
- Triandafyllidou, A. 2022. “Decentering the Study of Migration Governance: A Radical View.” Geopolitics 27 (3): 811–825. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2020.1839052
- Tsourapas, G. 2017. “Migration Diplomacy in the Global South: Cooperation, Coercion and Issue Linkage in Gaddafi’s Libya.” Third World Quarterly 38 (10): 2367–2385. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1350102
- Tsourapas, G. 2018. “Labor Migrants as Political Leverage: Migration Interdependence and Coercion in the Mediterranean.” International Studies Quarterly 62 (2): 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqx088
- UNHCR. 2015. “UNHCR Global Trends: “Forced Displacement in 2014”.” June 18. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/unhcr-global-trends-forced-displacement-2014#:∼:text=Syria%20is%20the%20world's%20biggest,next%20biggest%20refugee%20source%20countries
- UNODC Observatory on Smuggling of Migrants. 2021. “West Africa, North Africa and the Central Mediterranean.” https://www.unodc.org/res/som/docs/Observatory_Storymap_1_Final_2021.05.19.pdf
- UNODC Observatory on Smuggling of Migrants. 2022. “Migrant Smuggling from Nigeria: Research Findings on Migrant Smuggling of Nigerians.” https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/edc15a9dd4cf411c8d8edd061c6c9460
- Urbina, I. 2021. The Secretive Prisons That Keep Migrants Out of Europe. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/12/06/the-secretive-libyan-prisons-that-keep-migrants-out-of-europe
- Urbina, I. 2022. “What Was the Impact of Our Exposé on Europe’s Shadow Immigration System?” Pulitzer Centre. Januatry. https://pulitzercenter.org/blog/what-was-impact-our-expose-europes-shadow-immigration-system
- Vasques, E. 2023. “EU to Train Libyan Coast Guard ‘Whenever Libyan Side is Ready’.” EURACTIOV. https://www.euractiv.com/section/migration/news/eu-to-train-libyan-coast-guard-whenever-libyan-side-is-ready/
- Vernhes, S. 2022. “Libya: Is EU Money Funding the Migrant Business?” The Africa Report. February 16. https://www.theafricareport.com/177226/libya-is-eu-money-funding-the-migrant-business/
- Zincone, G., and T. Caponio. 2006. “The Multilevel Governance of Migration.” In The Dynamics of Migration and Settlement in Europe: A State of the Art, edited by R. Penninx, M. Berger, and K. Kraal, 269–304. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048504176-010