Notes
- J A Bill, ‘The study of Middle East politics, 1946‐1996: a stocktaking’, Middle East Journal, 50(4), 1996, pp 501–512; and P Smith, ‘The changing agenda for social science research on Latin America’, in P Smith (ed), Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995. A research programme organised by the Center for Iberian and Latin American Studies (CILAS) at the University of California, San Diego is publishing a series of volumes that ‘demonstrate the desirability and the feasibility of analyzing Latin America in comparative perspective, in conjunction with other regions, and in global perspective, in the context of worldwide processes’.
- See, for example, G O'Donnell, P C Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transition from Authoritarian Rule, 4 vols, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986; E Baloyra (ed), Comparing New Democracies: Transition and Consolidation in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987; G Gereffi & D Wyman (eds), Manufacturing Miracles: Paths of Industrialization in Latin America and East Asia, Princeton,. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990; D Rueschmeyer, E H Stephens & J D Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992; S Mainwaring, G O'Donnell & J S Valenzuela (eds), Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992; R Gunther, P N Diamandorous & H-J Puhle (eds), The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective, Baltimore, MD. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995; A Lijphart & C Waisman (eds), Institutional Design in New Democracies: Eastern Europe and Latin America, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996; and J Linz & A Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communism Europe, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
- See, for example, E Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Service and its Critics, New York: Penguin, 1994; J Hall (ed), Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995; I Budge & D McKay (eds), Developing Democracy, London: Sage, 1994; and K Tester, Civil Society, London: Routledge, 1992, to mention only a few.
- G O'Donnell & P Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986, p 48; B Geremek, ‘Civil society then and now’, Journal of Democracy, 3(2), 1992, pp3–12; L Diamond, ‘Rethinking civil society: toward democratic consolidation’, Journal of Democracy, 5(3), 1994, pp 4–17.
- See, for example, C Bryant, ‘Civic nation, civil society, civil religion’, in Hall, Civil Society, pp 136–157.
- H Eckstein, The Theory of Stable Democracy, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961.
- A Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988, p 7.
- Ibid, pp 3–4.
- A Portes & A Kincaid, ‘The crisis of authoritarianism: state and civil society in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay’, Research in Political Sociology, 1, 1985, p 54.
- G Ekiert, ‘Democratization processes in East Central Europe: a theoretical reconsideration’, British Journal of Political Science, 21, 1991, pp 26–55.
- Several scholars have aptly noted these exceptions, eg J M Maravall, C Bresser-Pereira & A Przeworski, Economic Reforms in New Democracies, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991, pp 77–131. It is important to note that economic liberalisation in Chile began with the imposition of the authoritarian state.
- A Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, p 182.
- S Haggard & R Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995, p 7.
- P Oxhorn, Organizing Civil Society: The Popular Sectors and the Struggle for Democracy, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995, p 44.
- Haggard & Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions, pp 7–8.
- D Levine, Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1986. It is important to note that the development of this social awakening in the Church did not develop with the same intensity throughout Latin America, and did not necessarily flourish in direct response to military regimes. The Church in Argentina and Bolivia was not as inclined towards social activism as the institution in Colombia and Central America.
- This point deserves much fuller treatment than the scope of this paper allows. For two differing views on this see, J Miller, God Has Ninety-Nine Names: Reporting From a Militant Middle East, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996; and J Esposito & J Voll, Islam and Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
- For an analysis of the early development of civil society in Latin America, see R C Conde, The First Stages of Modernization in Spanish America, New York: Harper and Row, 1974; R Duncan, Latin American Politics: A Developmental Approach, New York: Praeger, 1976.
- On the development of civil society under an authoritarian regime, see S Eckstein (ed), Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989; J Corradi, P W Fagen & M A Garreton (eds), Fear at the Edge: State Terror and Resistance in Latin America, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992.
- P Drake, Labor Movements and Dictatorships: The Southern Cone in Comparative Perspective, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
- C Anderson, Politics and Economic Change in Latin America, Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1967: David Rueschemeyer, et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy.
- J Johnson, Political Change in Latin America: The Emergence of the Middle Sectors, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958.
- G Germani, The Sociology of Modernization: Studies on Its Historical and Theoretical Aspects in Latin America, New Brunswick: Transactions Books, 1981.
- Rueschemeyer et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy, p 166.
- V Bulmer-Thomas, The Political Economy of Central America Since 1920, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp 68–100.
- R Spalding, ‘The Mexican variant of corporatism’, Comparative Political Studies, 14, 1981, pp 139–161.
- V Alba, Politics and the Labor Movement in Latin America, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968, pp 67–96; K Erickson, The Brazilian Corporative Slate and Working Class Politics, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977.
- C Wagley, ‘The dilemma of the Latin America middle class’, in C Wagley (ed), The Latin American Tradition, New York: Columbia University Press, 1968, pp 194–212.
- C Veliz, The Politics of Conformity in Latin America, London: Oxford University Press, 1976, p 72.
- Rueschemeyer, et al., Capitalist Development and Democracy, p 217.
- L Landim, ‘Nongovernmental organizations in Latin America’, in R Camp (ed), Democracy in Latin America: Patterns and Cycles, Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1996, pp 207–222.
- C Schneider, Shantytown Protest in Pinochet's Chile, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1995.
- S Mainwaring, ‘Grassroots popular movements and the struggle for democracy: Nova Iguaçu’, in A Stepan (ed), Democratizing Brazil: Problems of Transition, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp 168–204; and J Burdick, ‘Rethinking the study of social movements: the case of urban Christian base communities in urban Brazil’, in A Escobar & S Alvarez (eds), The Making of Social Movements in Latin America: Identity, Strategy, and Democracy, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992, pp 171–184.
- G O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic—Authoritarianism, Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1973.
- A Stepan, ‘State power and the strength of civil society in the Southern Cone of Latin America’, in P Evans, D Rueschemeyer & T Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985, p 317.
- K Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.
- Stepan, ‘State power and the strength of civil society’, p 323.
- For a discussion of state—society relations during the Pinochet dictatorship, see H Fruhling, ‘Repressive policies and legal dissent in authoritarian regimes: Chile 1973–1981’, International Journal of Sociology of Law, 12, 1984, pp 351–374; J Valenzuela & A Valenzuela (eds), Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Opposition, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986; M Garreton, The Chilean Political Process, Boston, MA: Allen and Unwin, 1989.
- M Garreton, ‘Popular mobilization and the military regime in Chile: the complexities of the invisible transition’, in S Eckstein (ed), Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989.
- D Mutchler, The Church as a Political Force in Latin America, New York: Praeger, 1971; B Smith, The Church and Politics in Chile, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982; S Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil,1916–1985, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986.
- T Bruneau, The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1982; R D Cava, ‘The “People's Church“, the Vatican, and Abertura’, in Stepan, Democratizing Brazil, pp 143–167.
- F Weffort, Qual Democracia?, São Paulo: Companhia Das Letras, 1992, pp 42–69.
- For a discussion of the Latin American Left and its changes in rhetoric, strategies and goals, see J Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left after the Cold War, New York: Knopf, 1993.
- Haggard & Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transition, p, 45–74.
- S Mainwaring, ‘The transition to democracy in Brazil’, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 28, September 1986, p 152.
- G Richards, ‘Stabilization crises and the breakdown of military authoritarianism in Latin America’, Comparative Political Studies, 18(4), 1986, pp 449–485.
- F G Gause, Oil Monarchies: Domestic and Security Challenges in the Arab Gulf States, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994.
- J Ismael, Kuwait: Dependency and Class in a Rentier Slate, Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1993, p 134.
- M Palmer, A Leila & E S Yassin, The Egyptian Bureaucracy, Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press, 1988, p 4.
- A Richards & J Waterbury, A Political Economy of the Middle East, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990, p 205.
- D Sullivan, ‘Extra-state actors and privatization in Egypt’, in I Harik & D Sullivan (eds), Privatization and Liberalization in the Middle East, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992, pp 27–28.
- K H Al-Naqeeb, ‘Social origins of the authoritarian state in the Arab East’, in E Davis & N Gavrielides (eds), Statecraft in the Middle East: Oil, Historical Memory, and Popular Culture, Miami: Florida International University Press, 1991, pp 42–43.
- L Cantori, ‘Civil society, liberalism and the corporatist alternative in the Middle East’, Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 31(1), 1997, p 37.
- M Kamrava, ‘Frozen political liberalization in Jordan: the consequences for democracy’, Democratization, 5(1), 1998, pp 138–157.
- L Cantori, ‘Civil society, liberalism and the corporatist alternative in the Middle East’, p 37.
- A notable exception was Bahrain, where there were repeated instances of labour unrest throughout the 1960s.
- I Harik, ‘Privatization: the issue, the prospects, and the fears’, in Harik & Sullivan, Privatization and Liberalization in the Middle East, p 12.
- Ibid, p 17.
- H Amirahmadi, Revolution and Economic Transition: The Iranian Experience, Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990, p 101.
- I Harik, ‘Privatization’, p 13.
- H Barkey, ‘Can the Middle East compete?’, in L Diamond & M Plattner (eds), Economic Reform and Democracy, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995, p 167.
- The use of the term ‘natural state’ here is inspired by Khaldoun Hasan al-Naqeeb, although he uses it in a specific historical context, lasting roughly from the 16 century to the 19 century. See, K H al-Naqeeb, Society and State in the Gulf and Arab Peninsula, London: Routledge, 1990, pp 6–24.
- Gause, Oil Monarchies, pp 12–13.
- P Wilson & D Graham, Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm, Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe, 1994, p 56.
- Ibid, p 61, In addition to ‘His Majesty’, the King dropped other titles, including ‘Light of the Kingdom’ and ‘Object of One's Self-Sacrifice’.
- M Field, The Merchant: The Big Business Families of Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States, Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 1985.
- R Owen, Migrant Workers in the Gulf, London: Minority Rights Group, 1985.
- Nevertheless, the political systems that existed in Iran under the Pahlavi monarchs, in Turkey in the 1970s, and in Algeria in the late 1970s and the 1980s did come close to resembling the bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes found in Latin America.
- A R Norton, ‘Introduction’, in Norton (ed), Civil Society in the Middle East, Leiden: E J Brill, 1995, p 3.
- Ibid, p 5.
- Ibid, p 9.
- Ibid, p 16.
- S E Ibrahim, ‘Civil society and prospects for democratization in the Arab World’ in Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, p 42.
- L Brand, ‘In the beginning was the state…: the quest for civil society in Jordan’, in Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, p 184.
- M Kamrava, ‘Frozen political liberalization in Jordan: the consequences for democracy’.
- M Muslih, ‘Palestinian civil society’, in Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, pp 249–258.
- Ibid, p 268.
- N Hicks & G Al-Najjar, ‘The utility of tradition: civil society in Kuwait’, in Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, pp 212–213.
- R Hinnebusch, ‘State, civil society, and political change in Syria’, in Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, p 242.
- M K Al-Sayyid, ‘A civil society in Egypt?’, in Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, p 290.
- E Bellin, ‘Civil society in Tunisia’, in A R Norton, Civil Society in the Middle East, p 147.
- R Tapper, ‘Anthropologists, historians, and tribes people on tribe and state formation in the Middle East’, in A R Norton (ed), Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990, p 67.
- L Cantori, ‘Civil society, liberalism and the corporatist alternative in the Middle East’, p 38.
- In the late 1980s and early 1990s, for example, the Jordanian government began embarking on a ‘democratic experiment’ and the Egyptian government sought to emphasise its openness.
- G O'Donnell & P Schmitter, Transitions from an Authoritarian Rule, pp 48–57.