The advantage of mixing examples in inductive learning: a comparison of three hypotheses

References

• Birnbaum, M. S., Kornell, N., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2013). Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 41, 392–402. doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0272-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carvalho, P. F., & Goldstone, R. L. (2014). The benefits of interleaved and blocked study: Different tasks benefit from different schedules of study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 281–288. doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0676-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2009). Optimizing distributed practice: Theoretical analysis and practical implications. Experimental Psychology, 56, 236–246. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences. New York, NY: Routledge Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 769–786. doi:10.3758/BF03196772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delaney, P. F., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Spirgel, A. (2010). Spacing and testing effects: A deeply critical, lengthy, and at times discursive review of the literature. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 53, pp. 63–148). Burlington, VT: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research. American Psychologist, 43, 627–634. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.43.8.627
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dempster, F. N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 309–330. doi:10.1007/BF01320097
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, 4–58. doi:10.1177/1529100612453266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hintzman, D. L., Summers, J. J., Eki, N. T., & Moore, M. D. (1975). Voluntary attention and the spacing effect. Memory & Cognition, 3, 576–580. doi:10.3758/BF03197533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane, M. J., Poole, B. J., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004). The generality of working-memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuo-spatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 189–217.10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Learning painting styles: Spacing is advantageous when it promotes discriminative contrast. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 97–103. doi:10.1002/acp.1801
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2008). Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the ‘enemy of induction?’. Psychological Science, 19, 585–592. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02127.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornell, N., Castel, A. D., Eich, T. S., & Bjork, R. A. (2010). Spacing as the friend of both memory and induction in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 25, 498–503. doi:10.1037/a0017807
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtz, H. K., & Hovland, C. I. (1956). Concept learning with differing sequences of instances. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 239–243. doi:10.1037/h0040295
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Logan, J. M., Castel, A. D., Haber, S., & Viehman, E. J. (2012). Metacognition and the spacing effect: The role of repetition, feedback, and instruction on judgments of learning for massed and spaced rehearsal. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 175–195. doi:10.1007/s11409-012-9090-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohrer, D. (2012). Interleaving helps students distinguish among similar concepts. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 355–367. doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9201-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instructional Science, 35, 481–498. doi:10.1007/s11251-007-9015-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, W., Eschman, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-prime reference guide. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychology Software Tools.
   Google Scholar
• Shipstead, Z., Lindsey, D. R. B., Marshall, R. L., & Engle, R. W. (2014). The mechanisms of working memory capacity: Primary memory, secondary memory, and attention control. Journal of Memory and Language, 72, 116–141. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.01.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unsworth, N., Brewer, G. A., & Spillers, G. J. (2013). Working memory capacity and retrieval from long-term memory: The role of controlled search. Memory & Cognition, 41, 242–254. doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0261-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlach, H. A., Sandhofer, C. M., & Kornell, N. (2008). The spacing effect in children’s memory and category induction. Cognition, 109, 163–167. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahlheim, C. N., Dunlosky, J., & Jacoby, L. L. (2011). Spacing enhances the learning of natural concepts: An investigation of mechanisms, metacognition, and aging. Memory & Cognition, 39, 750–763. doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0063-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zulkiply, N., & Burt, J. S. (2013). The exemplar interleaving effect in inductive learning: Moderation by the difficulty of category discriminations. Memory & Cognition, 41, 16–27. doi:10.3758/s13421-012-0238-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar