The physiologic and pathologic effects of pregnancy on the human visual system

References

• Akar Y, Yucel I, Akar ME, Zorlu G, Ari ES. 2005a. Effect of pregnancy on intraobserver and intertechnique agreement in intraocular pressure measurements. Ophthalmologica 219:36–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akar Y, Yucel I, Akar ME, Uner M, Trak B. 2005b. Long-term fluctuation of retinal sensitivity during pregnancy. Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology/Journal Canadien D'Ophtalmologie 40:487–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali S, Dornhorst A. 2011. Diabetes in pregnancy: health risks and management. Postgraduate Medical Journal 87(1028):417–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. 2001. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 108:776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes Association. 2014. Standards of medical care in diabetes—2014. Diabetes Care 37:S14–S80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arpacı H, Koban Y, Tok A, Beyoğlu A. 2018. Ocular perfusion pressure and intraocular pressure in pregnant women with severe preeclampsia. Ginekologia Polska 89:513–517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axer-Siegel R, Hod M, Fink-Cohen S, Kramer M, Weinberger D, Schindel B, Yassur Y. 1996. Diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Ophthalmology 103:1815–1819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blodi BA, Johnson MW, Gass JDM, Fine SL, Joffe LM. 1990. Purtscher's-like retinopathy after childbirth. Ophthalmology 97:1654–1659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonfioli AA, Orefice F. 2005. Toxoplasmosis. Seminars in Ophthalmology 20:129–141.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Braakenburg AM, Rothova A. 2009. Clinical features of ocular toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. Retina 29:627–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brauner SC, Chen TC, Hutchinson BT, Chang MA, Pasquale LR, Grosskreutz CL. 2006. The course of glaucoma during pregnancy: a retrospective case series. Archives of Ophthalmology 124:1089–1094.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brewington TE, Clark CC, Amin N, Venable HP. 1974. The effect of pregnancy on the peripheral visual field. Journal of the National Medical Association 66:330.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cantor LB, Harris A, Harris M. 2000. Glaucoma medications in pregnancy. Review of Ophthalmology 2000:91–99.
   Google Scholar
• Carlin A, Alfirevic Z. 2008. Physiological changes of pregnancy and monitoring. Best Practice and Research Clinical Obstetrics amd Gynaecology 22:801–823. p
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang M, Herbert WN. 1984. Retinal arteriolar occlusions following amniotic fluid embolism. Ophthalmology 91:1634–1637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chawla S, Chaudhary T, Aggarwal S, Maiti GD, Jaiswal K, Yadav J. 2013. Ophthalmic considerations in pregnancy. Medical Journal Armed Forces India 69:278–284.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen HC, Newsom RS, Patel V, Cassar J, Mather H, Kohner EM. 1994. Retinal blood flow changes during pregnancy in women with diabetes. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 35:3199–3208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chew EY, Mills JL, Metzger BE, Remaley NA, Jovanovic-Peterson L, Knopp RH, et al. 1995. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy: the diabetes in early pregnancy study. Diabetes Care 18:631–637.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiam NP, Hall AJ, Stawell RJ, Busija L, Lim LL. 2013. The course of uveitis in pregnancy and postpartum. British Journal of Ophthalmology 97:1284–1288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung CY, Kwok AKH, Chung KL. 2004. Use of ophthalmic medications during pregnancy. Hong Kong Medical Journal 10:191–196.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. 2000. Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Diabetes Care 23:1084–1091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. 1979. Four risk factors for severe visual loss in diabetic retinopathy. The third report from the Diabetic Retinopathy Study. Archives of Ophthalmology 97:654–655.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ding C, Chang N, Fong YC, Wang Y, Trousdale MD, Mircheff AK, Schechter JE. 2006. Interacting influences of pregnancy and corneal injury on rabbit lacrimal gland immunoarchitecture and function. Investigative Opthalmology and Visual Science 47:1368–1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durrani OM, Gordon C, Murray PI. 2002. Primary anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome (APS): current concepts. Survey of Ophthalmology 47:215–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Errera MH, Kohly RP, da Cruz L. 2013. Pregnancy-associated retinal diseases and their management. Survey of Ophthalmology 58:127–142. p
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fatt I, Harris MG. 1973. Refractive index of the cornea as a function of its thickness. American Journal of Optometry and Archives of American Academy of Optometry 50:383–386.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feder RS, Olsen TW, Prum BE, Summers CG, Olson RJ, Williams RD, Musch DC. 2016. Comprehensive adult medical eye evaluation preferred practice pattern® guidelines. Ophthalmology 123:P209–P236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felix JPF, Lira RPC, Zacchia RS, Toribio JM, Nascimento MA, Arieta CEL. 2014. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus placebo to reduce the risk of recurrences of Toxoplasma gondii retinochoroiditis: randomized controlled clinical trial. American Journal of Ophthalmology 157:762–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick DL, Russell MA. 2010. Diagnosis and management of thyroid disease in pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America 37:173–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garweg JG, Scherrer J, Wallon M, Kodjikian L, Peyron F. 2005. Reactivation of ocular toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 112:241–242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giannina G, Belfort MA, Abadejos P, Dorman K, 1997. Comparison of intraocular pressure between normotensive and preeclamptic women in the peripartum period. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 176:1052–1055.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gisbert JP. 2010. Safety of immunomodulators and biologics for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 16:881–895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gritz DC, Wong IG. 2004. Incidence and prevalence of uveitis in Northern California: the Northern California epidemiology of uveitis study. Ophthalmology 111:491–500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grostern RJ, Shternfeld IS, Bacus SS, Gilchrist K, Zimbric ML, Albert DM. and Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study Group, 2001. Absence of type I estrogen receptors in choroidal melanoma: analysis of Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study (COMS) eyes. American Journal of Ophthalmology 131:788–791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoines J, Buettner H. 1989. Ocular complications of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) in abruptio placentae. Retina (Philadelphia, Pa.) 9:105–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvat M, Maclean H, Goldberg L, Crock GW. 1980. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: a 12-year prospective survey. British Journal of Ophthalmology 64:398–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hørven I, Gjønnaess H. 1974. Corneal indentation pulse and intraocular pressure in pregnancy. Archives of Ophthalmology 91:92–98.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huna-Baron R, Kupersmith MJ. 2002. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy. Journal of Neurology 249:1078–1081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jadotte YT, Schwartz RA. 2010. Melasma: insights and perspectives. Acta Dermatovenerologica Croatica 18(2):124–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakob E, Reuland MS, Mackensen F, Harsch N, Fleckenstein M, Lorenz HM, et al. 2009. Uveitis subtypes in a German interdisciplinary uveitis center—analysis of 1916 patients. The Journal of Rheumatology 36:127–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson SM, Martinez M, Freedman S. 2001. Management of glaucoma in pregnancy and lactation. Survey of Ophthalmology 45:449–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jünemann AGM, Sterk N, Rejdak R. 2012. Einfluss des Geburtsmodus auf vorbestehende Augenerkrankungen. Der Ophthalmologe 109:229–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapoor KG. 2010. More than meets the eye? Redefining idiopathic intracranial hypertension. International Journal of Neuroscience 120:471–482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keleştimur F. 2003. Sheehan's syndrome. Pituitary 6:181–188.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R. 1990. Effect of pregnancy on progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 13:34–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kump LI, Cervantes-Castañeda RA, Androudi SN, Foster CS, Christen WG. 2006. Patterns of exacerbations of chronic non-infectious uveitis in pregnancy and puerperium. Ocular Immunology and Inflammation 14:99–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen M, Colmorn LB, Bønnelycke M, Kaaja R, Immonen I, Sander B, Loukovaara S. 2005. Retinal artery and vein diameters during pregnancy in diabetic women. Investigative Opthalmology and Visual Science 46:709–713.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavia C, Dallorto L, Maule M, Ceccarelli M, Fea AM. 2017. Minimally-invasive glaucoma surgeries (MIGS) for open angle glaucoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 12:e0183142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus JH. 2011. Thyroid function in pregnancy. British Medical Bulletin 97:137–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee AG, Pless M, Falardeau J, Capozzoli T, Wall M, Kardon RH. 2005. The use of acetazolamide in idiopathic intracranial hypertension during pregnancy. American Journal of Ophthalmology 139:855–859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackensen F, Paulus WE, Max R, Ness T. 2014. Ocular changes during pregnancy. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 111:567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millodot M. 1977. The influence of pregnancy on the sensitivity of the cornea. The British Journal of Ophthalmology 61:646–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montagnana M, Franchi M, Danese E, Gotsch F, Guidi GC. 2010. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in obstetric and gynecologic disorders. Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis 36(4):404–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthukumar N, Rossette D, Soundaram M, Senthilbabu S, Badrinarayanan T. 2008. Blindness following pituitary apoplexy: timing of surgery and neuro-ophthalmic outcome. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 15:873–879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park SB, Lindahl KJ, Temnycky GO, Aquavella JV. 1992. The effect of pregnancy on corneal curvature. The CLAO Journal: Official Publication of the Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists, Inc 18:256–259.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patchett RB, Wilson WB, Ellis PP. 1988. Ophthalmic complications with disseminated intravascular coagulation. British Journal of Ophthalmology 72:377–379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Percival SP. 1970. Ocular findings in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (Moschcowitz's disease). The British Journal of Ophthalmology 54:73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins SL, Kim JE, Pollack JS, Merrill PT. 2002. Clinical characteristics of central serous chorioretinopathy in women. Ophthalmology 109:262–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilas-Pomykalska M, Czajkowskii J, Oszukowski P. 2005. Ocular changes during pregnancy. Ginekologia Polska 76:655–660.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pillunat LE, Erb C, Jünemann AG, Kimmich F. 2017. Micro-invasive glaucoma surgery (MIGS): a review of surgical procedures using stents. Clinical Ophthalmology 11:1583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polizzi S, Mahajan VB. 2015. Intravitreal anti-VEGF injections in pregnancy: case series and review of literature. Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics: The Official Journal of the Association for Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics 31:605–610.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polizzi S, Ferrara G, Restaino S, Rinaldi S, Tognetto D. 2015. Inadvertent use of bevacizumab in pregnant women with diabetes mellitus type 1. Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology 26:161–163.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Qureshi IA, Xi XR, Yaqob T. 2000. The ocular hypotensive effect of late pregnancy is higher in multigravidae than in primigravidae. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology 238:64–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabiah PK, Vitale AT. 2003. Noninfectious uveitis and pregnancy. American Journal of Ophthalmology 136:91–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reich M, Ruppenstein M, Becker MD, Mackensen F. 2015. Risk of recurrence of preexisting ocular toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. Ocular Immunology and Inflammation 23:240–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rezai KA, Eliott D. 2004. Optical coherence tomographic findings in pregnancy-associated central serous chorioretinopathy. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology 242:1014–1016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riss B, Riss P. 1981. Corneal sensitivity in pregnancy. Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde 183:57–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal JM, Johnson MW. 2018. Management of retinal diseases in pregnant patients. Journal of Ophthalmic and Vision Research 13:62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samples JR, Meyer SM. 1988. Use of ophthalmic medications in pregnant and nursing women. American Journal of Ophthalmology 106:616–623.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samra KA. 2013. The eye and visual system in pregnancy, what to expect? An in-depth review. Oman Journal of Ophthalmology 6:87.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sanke RF. 1984. Blepharoptosis as a complication of pregnancy. Ann Ophthalmol 16:720–722.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schechter JE, Pidgeon M, Chang D, Fong YC, Trousdale MD, Chang N. 2002. Potential role of disrupted lacrimal acinar cells in dry eye during pregnancy. In Sullivan DA, Stern ME, Tsubota K, Dartt DA, Sullivan RM, Bromberg BB, editors. Lacrimal gland, tear film, and dry eye syndromes 3. Boston, MA: Springer. p. 153–157.
   Google Scholar
• Schocket LS, Grunwald JE, Tsang AF, DuPont J. 1999. The effect of pregnancy on retinal hemodynamics in diabetic versus nondiabetic mothers. American Journal of Ophthalmology 128:477–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seddon JM, MacLaughlin DT, Albert DM, Gragoudas ES, Ference M. 1982. Uveal melanomas presenting during pregnancy and the investigation of oestrogen receptors in melanomas. British Journal of Ophthalmology 66:695–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheth BP, Mieler WF. 2001. Ocular complications of pregnancy. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology 12:455–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheth BP. 2008. Does pregnancy accelerate the rate of progression of diabetic retinopathy? An update. Current Diabetes Reports 8:270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Socha MW, Piotrowiak I, Jagielska I, Kazdepka-Ziemińska A, Szymański M, Duczmal M, et al. 2010. [Retrospective analysis of ocular disorders and frequency of cesarean sections for ocular indications in 2000-2008–our own experience]. Ginekologia Polska 81:188–191. In Polish.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soheilian M, Ramezani A, Azimzadeh A, Sadoughi MM, Dehghan MH, Shahghadami R, et al. 2011. Randomized trial of intravitreal clindamycin and dexamethasone versus pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine, and prednisolone in treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ophthalmology 118:134–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan L, Kelly SP, Glenn A, Williams CPR, McKibbin M. 2014. Intravitreal bevacizumab injection in unrecognised early pregnancy. Eye 28:492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunness JS. 1988. The pregnant woman's eye. Survey of Ophthalmology 32:219–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talley AR, Assil KK, Schanzlin D. 1997. Patient selection and evaluation. In: Talamo JH, Kruger RR, editors. The Excimer Manual. Boston: Little, Brown, Co. p. 38.
   Google Scholar
• Tarantola RM, Folk JC, Boldt HC, Mahajan VB. 2010. Intravitreal bevacizumab during pregnancy. Retina 30:1405–1411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornburg KL, Jacobson SL, Giraud GD, Morton MJ. 2000. Hemodynamic changes in pregnancy. Seminars in Perinatology 24(1):11–14.
   Google Scholar
• Tsironi E, Gatselis N, Kotoula MG, Zachou K, Pefkianaki M, Zacharaki F, et al. 2009. Ocular disorders as the prevailing manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome: a case series. Cases Journal 2:159.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Verier-Mine O, Chaturvedi N, Webb DJ, Quiquempois A, Bensoussan D, Fuller JH. 2001. Is pregnancy a risk factor for microvascular complications? The EURODIAB prospective study. Diabetologia 44:A42–A42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wan WL, Geller JL, Feldon SE, Sadun AA. 1990. Visual loss caused by rapidly progressive intracranial meningiomas during pregnancy. Ophthalmology 97:18–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinreb RN, Lu A, Beeson C. 1988. Maternal corneal thickness during pregnancy. American Journal of Ophthalmology 105:258–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wertheim M, Broadway DC. 2002. Cyclodiode laser therapy to control intraocular pressure during pregnancy. British Journal of Ophthalmology 86:1318–1319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar